5\
\J ZO CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE
MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
HEYE FOUNDATION
VOL. XX
THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
BY FREDERICK WEBB HODGE
Report of the J-lendridks-yiodge Expedition
1917-1923
by
WATSON SMITH
RICHARD B. WOODBURY
NATHALIE F. S. WOODBURY
With a Contribution by
ROSS G. MONTGOMERY
NEW YORK
MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
HEYE FOUNDATION
1966
FREDERICK WEBB HODGE
October 28, 1864 - September 28, 1956
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE
MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
HEYE FOUNDATION
VOL. XX
THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
BY FREDERICK WEBB HODGE
Report of the J-lendridks-yiodge Expedition
1917-1923
by
WATSON SMITH
RICHARD B.WOODBURY
NATHALIE F. S. WOODBURY
With a Contribution by
ROSS G. MONTGOMERY
NEW YORK
MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN
HEYE FOUNDATION
1966
th
VERB
Library of Congress catalog card number 66-27358
Printed in Germany at J.J. Augustin, Gluckstadt
CONTENTS
Foreword xv
Introduction. Hawikuh and its Excavation i
Chapter I. The Native Village ii
General Discussion of Major Architectural Features of the
Pueblo of Hawikuh ii
Walls 15
Adobe Bricks 17
Posts and Wattle 18
Slabs at Bases of Walls 18
Floors 18
Split-level Floors 19
Paving Slabs 20
Other Floor Features 20
Fireplaces 22
Fireplaces, Chimneys, and Piki Hoods,
hy Frederick W. Hodge 24
Benches 28
Storage Bins , 30
Granaries 32
Mealing Bins 34
Beams, Roofs, and Hatchways 35
Hatchway Frames 37
Wall Openings 37
Doorways 37
Windows 38
Niches 39
Window Openings, hy Frederick W. Hodge 39
"Pre-Hawikuh" Structures 40
Kivas 42
Artifacts 44
Non-ceramic Objects 45
Pottery 45
Ceramic Nomenclature 46
Ceramic Chronology 47
iii
IV CONTENTS
Possible Relations between Ziifii and Southern Arizona 48
House Group A 52
The Architecture 52
Fireplaces 56
Benches 56
Bins 57
Floor Slabs 57
Shelf (?) 57
Artifacts 57
Pottery 58
House Group B 58
Masonry 60
Fireplaces 61
Bins 63
Miscellaneous Features 63
Shelf Supports (?) 63
Stick in Wall 63
Step 63
Ladder 63
Snake Pens 64
Spanish Artifacts 64
Native Artifacts 64
Pottery 65
Particular Rooms 69
Passageway (Room 344) 69
Room 314 71
Room 366 73
House Group C 74
Occupation Pattern 75
Fireplaces 78
Miscellaneous Features y^
Peg in Wall yS
Stick in Wall 78
Slabs 78
Posts in Walls 79
Spanish Artifacts 79
Native Artifacts 79
Pottery 80
Particular Rooms 81
House Group D 82
CONTENTS V
Fireplaces 83
Benches and Bins 84
Wooden Rod 84
Spanish Artifacts 85
Native Artifacts 86
Pottery 87
House Group E 88
Fireplaces 89
Partitions 90
Benches and Bins 90
Poles , 91
Cists 91
Spanish Artifacts 92
Native Artifacts 93
Pottery 93
House Group F 95
Fireplaces 95
Step (?) 96
Wall Pegs 96
Spanish Artifacts 96
Native Artifacts 97
Pottery 97
Chapter H. The Mission Church and Friary of La Purisima
Concepcion de Hawikuh 98
Historical Review 98
The Excavation of Franciscan Hawikuh 102
The Church 103
The Nave (Room 41) 103
Doorways 104
The Choir Loft 106
The Main Facade 106
The Sanctuary 106
The First Altar 108
The Second Altar 108
The Side Altars no
Burials no
The Cemetery no
The Baptistery (Room 31) no
The Chapel and Sacristy (Rooms 21, 25, 30) in
The Kitchen and Refectory (Rooms 13 and 14) 115
VI CONTENTS
Stairways (Rooms i and 29) 117
The Garth and Patio 118
Other Spanish Features 119
Wall Decoration 119
Spanish Fireplaces 119
Pre- Spanish Occupation and Subsequent Alterations 120
Alterations by the Friars 121
Native Renovations 121
Functional Interpretations of the Church and Friary,
hy Ross G. Montgomery 126
The Baptistery 126
The Conventual Chapel 127
Altars in the Church 129
Reredos 130
Stairways 131
Chapter III. The Pottery of Hawikuh 135
Introduction 135
Hodge's Terminology for the Pottery of Hawikuh 137
Sequence of Pottery at Hawikuh,
hy Frederick W. Hodge 141
The Plaza Trench and its Disclosures,
by Frederick W. Hodge 150
Chapter IV. The Burials and Associated Artifacts 173
Introduction 173
The Field Record 176
Method of the Present Analysis 178
Disposition of the Skeletal Material 178
Scope of the Present Report 180
Forms of Burial at the Ancient Zuni Pueblo of
Hawikuh, New Mexico, by Frederick W. Hodge 181
Summary of Field Data 186
Locations 186
Dating 188
Age and Sex of the Skeletons 192
Forms of Inhumation 194
Burials Within the Church, by Jesse L. Nushaiim 199
Grave Construction 202
Cremation 203
"Killing" of Cremation Vessels 204
CONTENTS VU
Field Notes for Selected Burials 205
Burial S2 206
Burial 28 206
Burial 113 207
Burial 193 208
Burial 216 210
Burial 230 210
Burial 596 211
Burial 816 211
Burial 865 212
Burial 870 212
Burial 911 213
Burial 915 213
Burial 916 217
Burial 927 218
Burial 943 220
Burial 978 220
Burial 993 220
Burial 1002 221
Summary of Artifacts Associated with the Graves . 221
. Artifacts Related to Hunting and Fighting 222
Bows 222
Arrows and Arrowshafts 223
Chipped Stone Knives and Points 223
Clubs 224
Net 225
Wrist-guards 225
Artifacts Related to Farming 226
Digging Sticks 226
Food and Artifacts Related to Food Preparation 227
Corn 227
Other Vegetable Foods 228
Animal Foods 231
Metates 232
Manos 232
Cooking Slabs 233
Jar Covers 233
Cooking Paddle 233
Pottery 233
Gourd Dippers and Vessels 238
VUl CONTENTS
Basketry 238
Artifacts Related to Household Furnishing 240
Matting 240
Brushes 241
Artifacts Related to Manufacturing 242
Stone Axes 242
Hammerstones 242
Polishing Pebbles 242
Paint Grinding Stones 242
Stone Abraders 243
Iron Tools 243
Unfired Clay 243
Bone Tools 243
Bone Awls 244
Bone "Chisels" 245
Bone "Gouge" 245
Bone Needles 245
Bone "Knives" 246
Bone Weaving Tools 246
Wooden Weaving Tools 246
Antler Tools 247
Spindle Whorl 248
Artifacts Related to Dress and Adornment 248
Textile Garments 248
Skin Garments 252
Bark Loin-cloth 252
Wooden Combs 252
Hair Dressing 253
Hair Brushes 254
Iron Belt Buckles (?) 254
Face Painting 254
Shell Beads 254
Shell Pendants 256
Other Shell Ornaments 258
Bone Beads 258
Bone Pins 259
Stone Tinklers 259
Stone Pendants 259
Turquoise 260
Bezoars 263
Glass Beads 265
CONTENTS IX
Porcelain ( ? ) Pendant 265
Copper Ornaments (?) 265
Artifacts Related to Ritual Activities 266
Feathers 266
Bird Skeletons 266
Plant Medicines 267
Pigments 268
Prayersticks 272
Reed Cigarettes 273
Portions of Shrines 273
Crucifix 274
Quartz Crystals 274
Concretions 275
Copper Objects 275
Pottery 275
Antler Headdress 276
Antlers in Graves 276
Painted Bone 276
Pipes 276
Musical Instruments 276
Skin Containers 277
Woven Bags 277
Chapter VI. Ceremonial Deposits in the Hawikuh
Cemetery, by Frederick W. Hodge 279
Mortuary Deposits 280
Deposits probably Mortuary 286
Sacerdotal Deposits 288
Animal Burials 292
References Cited 294
Appendix I. Bibliography of Publications Relating to the
Excavation of Hawikuh 298
Appendix II . Decorated Pottery of the Zuni Area,
by Richard B. Woodbury and Nathalie F. 5. Woodbury 302
Heshotauthla Polychrome 304
Heshotauthla Black-on-Red 309
Kwakina Polychrome 311
White-on-Red Pottery (Unnamed) 314
Pinnawa Glaze-on-White 315
Pinnawa Red-on- White 319
Kechipawan Polychrome 321
CONTENTS
Red-on-Buff Pottery (Unnamed) 324
Matsaki Polychrome 325
^latsaki Brown-on-Buff 330
Hawikuh Polychrome 331
References Cited 334
Plates
Frederick Webb Hodge frontispiece
1. General Views of Hawikuh
2. Excavation and Camp Scenes
3. A Typical Notebook Entry
4. Recent and Ancient Masonry
5. Fireplaces
6. Fireplaces
7. Doorways and Wall Openings
8. Fireplaces, Bins and Benches
9. Mealing Bins, Fireplaces, and other Interior Structures
10. Jacal Walls and Plaster
11. Details of Plaster
12. Hatchway Frames, Bins, and Windows
13. Architectural Views, including Beam Sockets and Doorway
14. Floor and Roof Construction
15. Granaries, Floor Beams, and Fireplaces
16. Fireplaces, Paved Floors, and Wall Slabs
17. Sanctuary of the Mission Church
18. Views of Church and Friary
19. Baptistery, Stairways to Belfry, and Wooden Railings in
Sanctuary
20. Heshotauthla Polychrome, Kwakina Polychrome, and Pin-
nawa Glaze-on-White
21. Pinnawa Red-on-White, Kechipawan Polychrome, and Un-
named Red-on-Buff and White-on-Red types
22. Kechipawan Polychrome
23. Matsaki Polychrome
24. Matsaki Polychrome
25. Hawikuh Polychrome
26. Hawikuh Polychrome
27. Efhgy Vessels
28. Cremation Burials
CONTENTS XI
2g. Views of the "Western Cemetery" and Inhumations
30. Inhumation Burials
31. Inhumation Burials
32. Inhumation Burials
33. Inhumation Burials
34. Staff and Visitors at Hawikuh Field Camp
Figures
1. Plan of the site of Hawikuh
2. Profiles of the site
3. Distribution of room sizes and proportions
4. Data on fireplaces in House Group D
5. Associations between benches, bins, and fireplaces in all house
groups
6. Plan and profile of House Group A
7. Plan of House Group B
8. Profiles through House Group B
9. Occurrences and associations of pottery types in House
Group B
10. Occurrences of ceramic types and Spanish artifacts in House
Group B
11. Plans of three levels of a typical room in House Group B
12. Plan of House Group C
13. Plan and profile of northern part of House Group C
14. Plan of House Group D
15. Profiles through House Group D
16. Profiles through House Group D
17. Plan of House Group E
18. Profiles through House Group E
19. Plan of House Group F
20. Plan of Franciscan Church and Friary
21. Reconstruction of probable appearance of the facade of the
Church
22. Construction details of door between Nave and Baptistery
23. Plan and side elevation of Sanctuary
24. Front elevation of Sanctuary
25. Plan and profile of Baptistery
26. Plan and profile of Conventual Chapel
Xll CONTENTS
27. Sketch of fragment of dado on wall of Nave
28. Plan and profile of the Kitchen
29. Profile of Room i, the Friary
30. Profile of Room 29, the Friary
31. Plan and profile of Room 9, the Friary
32. Profile of Room 2, the Friary
33. Reconstruction of possible appearance of the altar and reredos
in the Conventual Chapel
34. Vertical section of altar and reredos in the Conventual Chapel
35. Plan of rear of the Conventual Chapel
36. Bar graph of percentages of pottery types in the Plaza Trench
37. Location of cremations and inhumations at Hawikuh
38. "Scalp deposit" overlying Burial 113
39. Heshotauthla Polychrome
40. Heshotauthla Polychrome and Unnamed White-on-Red
41. Kwakina Polychrome and Unnamed White-on-Red
42. Kwakina Polychrome
43. Pinnawa Glaze-on- White
44. Pinnawa Red-on-White and Unnamed Red-on-Buff
45 „ Gila Polychrome
46. Gila Polychrome
47. Kechipawan Polychrome
48. Kechipawan Polychrome
49. Kechipawan Polychrome
50. Kechipawan Polychrome
51. Matsaki Polychrome
52. Matsaki Polychrome
53. Matsaki Polychrome
54. Matsaki Polychrome
55. Matsaki Polychrome
56. Matsaki Polychrome
57. Matsaki Polychrome
58. Matsaki Polychrome
59. Matsaki Polychrome
60. Matsaki Polychrome
61. Matsaki Polychrome
62. Matsaki Polychrome
63. Matsaki Polychrome
64. Matsaki Polychrome
65. Matsaki Polychrome
66. Matsaki Polychrome
CONTENTS Xlll
67. Matsaki Polychrome
68. Matsaki Polychrome
69. Matsaki Polychrome
70. Matsaki Polychrome
71. Matsaki Polychrome
72. Matsaki Polychrome
73. Matsaki Brown-on-Buff
74. Hawikuh Polychrome
75. Hawikuh Polychrome
76. Hawikuh Polychrome
77. Hawikuh Polychrome
78. Hawikuh Polychrome
79. Hawikuh Polychrome
80. Jeddito Black-on- Yellow, Sikyatki Polychrome, and unidenti-
fied vessels
Tables
1. Pottery types from the Plaza Trench, showing distribution
by levels 170
2. Chronological assignment of burials 190
3. Age and sex of Hawikuh burials, as determined by field
observations 193
4. Age and sex of Hawikuh skeletons sent to the U. S.
National Museum 193
5. Age and sex of Hawikuh skeletons 194
6. Orientation of Hawikuh inhumations 195
7. Position of Hawikuh inhumations 197
8. Forms of cremation at Hawikuh 205
9. Occurrence of pottery in Hawikuh burials 235
10. Relative abundance of pottery in inhumations 236
11. Occurrence of basketry in Hawikuh burials 239
12. Occurrence of shell beads in Hawikuh burials 255
13. Occurrence of shell pendants in burials 257
14. Occurrence of turquoise in graves 263
15. Pigments with inhumations which lack datable asso-
ciations 269
16. Pigments with inhumations associated with Matsaki
Polychrome 271
17. Pigments with inhumations associated with Hawikuh
Polychrome 272
FOREWORD
It is a genuine pleasure, mixed with no small feelings of relief,
to realize the completion of this extensive project. The general
report of the Hendricks-Hodge Expedition to Hawikuh has been
awaited for many years, since as one of the major archeological
activities of the first quarter of this century it provides considerable
insight into early excavation techniques, in addition to the light
it sheds on this phase of Pueblo prehistory.
The earlier hope that Dr. Hodge would be able to see this
through to publication ended with his death in 1956. Following
that loss, Mrs. Hodge generously made available all of her
husband's observations, notes and related data. These documents
and photographs are permanently deposited in the Museum
archives, readily accessible to anyone interested in the subject.
To organize the material for this volume, I turned to an old
friend, Watson Smith, whose archeological knowledge is equaled
only by his editorial skills. He responded nobly, as this present
book testifies, even to the locating of the pottery drawings which
it was at one time feared had been lost.
For an evaluation of the ceramics, I found Richard and
Nathalie Woodbury more than willing to help, since they had
already worked on the Hawikuh pottery collections in the Mu-
seum, knew the subject matter thoroughly, and shared my feelings
about getting this report into print.
The church aspect presented a problem, but Ross Montgomery,
a Los Angeles architect, saved the day. He was not only a
long-time friend of Dr. and Mrs. Hodge, thus sharing a keen
interest in the work, but much more importantly, knows Spanish
architectural history of the period as few other people. His
cooperation is manifest in the excellent analysis of the architecture
of the church at Hawikuh.
Still to be done are studies of the native artifacts of stone,
wood, basketry, and fabric, and of the Spanish materials. The
latter is a major effort in itself, and of such unique character
that it has been thought better left to a publication in its own
right. It is hoped that some scholar experienced in XVIth Century
Spanish material culture may find this a challenge.
The usual expressions of appreciation to all of those who have
in various ways made this the publication Dr. Hodge originally
XV
XVI FOREWORD
intended seem ineffective. I can only express my heartfelt gratitude
to Watson Smith, Richard and Nathalie Woodbury, and Ross
Montgomery, for their magnificent collaboration in this under-
taking. To Louis Schellbach go our thanks for the use of his
drawings, and to the late William O. Baake, an acknowledgment
of his artistry in patiently rendering the pottery designs. To Gene
Mean}^ Hodge goes my affectionate recognition of her wholehearted
cooperation and understanding patience.
To my predecessors at the Museum, Mr. E. K. Burnett, and
Dr. George G. Heye, goes due acknowledgment for their part in
keeping the Hawikuh collection and manuscript materials intact,
and for their readiness to see these published whenever it became
possible. Charles O. Turbyfill, who is one of the few remaining
members of the original Hawikuh Expedition, and his co-worker
Wilfred J. Kelly, have seen to the careful preservation of the
Hawikuh collections of which they have been custodians for so
many years ; their loyal services are most sincerely acknowledged.
The late Harmon W. Hendricks, a Founding Trustee of the
Museum, and one of its most active patrons, has earned major
recognition for his enthusiastic support of the Hawikuh Expe-
dition, without which it would never have come into being. When
Dr. Hodge first outlined the promise of a Hawikuh investigation,
his accounts apparently stirred Hendricks' imagination, and this
keen interest never flagged. He visited the site many times, and
offered continuous encouragement to the staff throughout the
years of the excavation.
And lastly, I am pleased to acknowledge the skilled efforts of
Carmelo Guadagno, staff photographer of the Museum, for taking
some seventy photographs of characteristic Hawikuh vessels
with such care. He supervised the extensive film salvage project
which was made possible by a grant from the National Science
Foundation, resulting in the transferral of the old Hawikuh
negatives which were on nitrate to a permanent safety film; due
recognition of that aid is w^armly extended. Nor can I close without
a gesture of appreciation to J. J. Augustin for his long-suffering
patience.
Somehow, it seems most appropriate that this report coincides
with the celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the founding of
this Museum.
Frederick J. Dockstader
May 16, 1966 Director
INTRODUCTION:
HAWIKUH AND ITS EXCAVATION
THE ancient Indian village of Hawikuh made its explosive
appearance on the stage of recorded history early in May,
1539, when Estevan, the companion of Fray Marcos de Niza,
entered it ostentatiously, only to be killed by its inhospitable
inhabitants. A year later, on June 7, 1540, Francisco Vasquez de
Coronado, with his straggling band of adventurers, stormed the
place and established the basis for subsequent Spanish occupation,
although it was to be almost a century before a Christian mission
was established there in 1630 by a small group of Franciscans.
A period of unrest followed, with intermittent abandonments,
until the village was finally destroyed in the Pueblo Revolt of
1680. Its colorful and tragic history up to that date has often been
told, most fully in Frederick Webb Hodge's classic book. History
of Hawikuh, and no purpose will be served here by a repetitious
summary.
Hawikuh was a stone and mud pueblo situated on a long,
narrow ridge fingering southwestwardly into the broad valley of
the Zufii River about 15 miles southwest of the modern village of
Zufii. It must have been occupied by the ancestors of the Zufii
Indians for at least several centuries before the arrival of the
Spanish, and at that time may have had a population of about
900 persons.
For more than two centuries its ruins lay in peace, until the
beginning of systematic archaeological work in 19 17, although
various travelers had seen them and Victor Mindeleff had described
and mapped them in 1886. In 1917, however, a party sponsored
jointly by the Smithsonian Institution and the Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, began excavations under the
direction of Frederick Webb Hodge, then Ethnologist-in-Charge
of the Bureau of American Ethnology. In whose mind the expe-
dition was first conceived is not recorded, but it seems reasonable
to suppose that it was in Hodge's. He had first seen the Zuni
country as a young man of 22 in 1886, when he accompanied the
2 INTRODUCTION
Hemenway Southwestern Archaeological Expedition as field sec-
retary to its director, Frank Hamilton Gushing. In 1888 and 1889
that Expedition excavated in the old Zufii pueblos of Halona and
Heshotauthla, and Hodge must have seen the ruins of Hawikuh
and been interested in the history that could be uncovered there.
Almost 30 years were to pass, however, before Hodge found
opportunity to return. Under the sponsorship of George G. Heye,
founder and director of the Museum of the American Indian, and
the financial support of Harmon Washington Hendricks, a trustee
of that institution, plans were made for extensive excavation, and
Hodge was chosen as field director. In April, 1917, he visited the
area and made prehminary arrangements for the work. He set up
camp and began operations in June of that year, with a staff from
the east and a crew of Zuni workmen. The expedition was officially
designated the Hendricks-Hodge Expedition, but Hodge himself
deprecated this usage and consistently referred to it as the Hen-
dricks-Heye Expedition.
During the first season, work was concentrated almost entirely
in the massive refuse heaps along the western slope of the ridge
and little investigation of the architectural features took place.
Five later seasons followed, and the work was terminated in the
autumn of 1923, after a temporary suspension during 1922. In
1919 and again in 1923 considerable work was done at the neigh-
boring pueblo of Kechipawan and its Spanish church, jointly with
the University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Cam-
bridge University, England, under the supervision of Louis Clarke.
In 1928 some shght additional excavation was pursued in two or
three rooms at Hawikuh.
On February 28, 1918, Hodge resigned from his position at the
Bureau of American Ethnology and immediately joined the per-
manent staff of the Museum of the American Indian, where he
remained until 1931, leaving then to become Director of the South-
west Museum in Los Angeles.
The excavations carried out by the Expedition were certainly
the most extensive archaeological investigation of a single site
undertaken up to that time in the United States, and they have
since been exceeded by few if any other field operations. Their
magnitude can be indicated by the bare statistics: about 1000
burials exhumed and recorded; about 370 rooms cleared (many to
a depth of 15 feet or more) in the native village; the large mission
church and its associated friary almost completely excavated; at
INTRODUCTION 3
least 1600 entire or restorable pottery vessels recovered, with an
uncounted quantity of potsherds and artifacts, both native and
Spanish.
During the six seasons at Hawikuh the following persons were
members of the staff for varying periods and in various capacities :
Donald A. Cadzow, Louis C. G. Clarke, Edwin F. Coffin, Henry
Craig Fleming, Thomas A. Joyce, Samuel K. Lothrop, Jesse L.
Nusbaum, George Hubbard Pepper, Alanson Buck Skinner and
Charles O. Turbyfill.
The names of at least 39 Zufii workmen appear in the field
records, as follows : Awsti, Ben Hodge, Burro, Carl, Chacon, Dela,
Disilu, Ed, Edson, Fred, Gaialito, Harry Shusti, Irwin, Jose Lalio,
Kauta, Kowayuka, Laimon Lasiluti, Lastialo, Licensi, Lorenzo
Chavez, Luis Chavez, Mack, Maiani, Manchalito, Manuel, Nata,
Namshipapo, Ninita, Pedro Pino, Pete, Peshkwi, Sam, Tilina, Tom,
Waiiku, Warren Ondalacy, Winischi, and Zufii Dick.
It is fitting to quote the sincere tribute paid by Hodge to
these Zufiis, in a letter to one of the authors, dated December 12,
1952:
*Tn conducting the archaeological excavations [at Hawikuh]
I employed only Zuni workmen, all of whom proved to be very
staunch friends, who, I believe, would have granted any favor.
Indeed, one of them, a medicine-man, interpreted for me the
significance of many 'finds' which could not have been learned
otherwise. Most of these are now dead; three years ago perhaps
four or five of an original twenty [regular workers] were living."
In the summer of 1963 the following survivors were reported
by Mrs. Dena Vanderwagen to be stiU living at Zuni: Laimon,
Lasiluti, Licensi, Lorenzo Chavez, Luis Chavez, and Warren On-
dalacy.
The medicine-man referred to may have been Pedro Pino. That
Hodge was held in affection by the Zuhis is evident from the
anecdote of their naming him 'Teluli,'' and by the fact that many
years later a group of them gathered in Phoenix at the home of
Odd Halseth to join him in an interview for tape recording, at
which they and he sang Zuni songs.
The nickname "Teluli" has been explained by Hodge himself
(1937&, pp. 20-21) as derived from an episode during his return
to Zufii in 1886 with the three Zunis who had previously accom-
panied Cushing to the East. One of them told a folktale of a mouse
that escaped from a raptorial swallow by running into its burrow,
4 INTRODUCTION
SO that all mice thereafter went about chattering the warning
"Teluli, Teluli," or "Dig your cellar." Because of Hodge's great
amusement at the telling of this story he was called "Teluli," and
not, as he made clear, because of his "digging proclivities."
During the 1920's Hodge wrote and published in the various
series of the Museum of the American Indian several reports on
particular phases of the Hawikuh excavations {see Appendix I).
Specifically, he wrote short general accounts of the site as a whole
and of the pottery, a monograph on the bone work, and a shorter
report on turquoise work. He apparently planned similar publi-
cations on other specific topics; in Hawikuh Bonework (p. 116),
when referring briefly to textiles he states, "these will be treated
in another paper." In 1927 his definitive History of Hawikuh
appeared as Volume I of the Frederick Webb Hodge Anniversary
Publication Fund of the Southwest Museum. But, due to factors
beyond his personal control, the complete report on the general
archaeology of the site never was written. Hodge was acutely
disappointed that circumstances had frustrated this cherished
work, and he probably never quite abandoned the hope that it
might eventually be accomplished. At the time of his retirement
from the Southwest Museum in 1955, he discussed the entire
problem with Watson Smith and proposed that the latter should
undertake the writing of the report, offering to make available all
his field notes and other relevant data as weU as his own personal
collaboration. Meanwhile the Woodburys had been excavating the
ruins of a pueblo (termed Atsinna) at El Morro National Monu-
ment, and had thus become interested in making an analytical
study of the Hawikuh pottery for comparative purposes.
The field records from the Hawikuh excavations were all in
Hodge's possession at that time, and in a letter to George Heye he
bespoke the latter's assent to the scheme. Heye generously gave
his full approval, and made available the facilities of the Museum
of the American Indian so far as they might be useful. This
sponsorship was reaffirmed after Heye's death by Frederick J.
Dockstader, who became Director of the Museum in i960, and
who further guaranteed pubHcation of a manuscript whenever it
should be completed.
Before active work could begin, however, Hodge died in Santa
Fe, New Mexico, on September 29, 1956, and the Hawikuh papers
passed into the possession of his wife, Mrs. Gene Meany Hodge.
She had been aware of the arrangement and was its enthusiastic
INTRODUCTION 5
supporter, but time was required to permit the making of an
inventory of her husband's vast collection of books, papers, letters,
and notes. Once this was accomplished Mrs. Hodge turned over
all relevant matter to the authors, who have used it for the
preparation of this volume.
Hodge was a thorough and meticulous man. The field notes
from Hawikuh consist of 15 bound note-books, most of which
contain in his fine but legible script all of his observations from
day to day during the entire period of the excavations, pertaining
to rooms, refuse, and burials. Parts of the books, however, were
compiled by others: Coffin, Lothrop, and Nusbaum. In many
instances these data were remarkably precise and minutely de-
tailed, and most measurements were recorded to the half-inch.
The notes on the architectural features of the native village alone
comprise, when transcribed, approximately 1000 double-spaced
typewritten pages, and are arranged systematically according to
individual levels of each room excavated. Notes on the burials are
sometimes equally detailed, but unfortunately they lack sketches
of either skeletal positions or artifact locations, and in many cases
are quite inadequate for full descriptions.
Very Httle information was recorded on the pottery and other
artifacts in the field, but all were carefully labeled and shipped by
rail to the Museum in New York. Unfortunately, most of the
sherds were not saved, but the numerous whole and restorable
vessels are safely stored at the Museum where they have been
studied by the Woodburys. India-ink drawings of the painted
decorations on about 750 of these vessels were made by WiUiam
Baake, under Hodge's supervision, and many of them are repro-
duced in this volume. The photographic record of architectural
features is excellent, and about 1000 5-by-7-inch negatives are
in the files, some of them reproduced herein. But of nearly 1000
burials, less than 100 w^ere photographed.
Excellent plans of the native village and of the mission estab-
lishment were made by Louis Schellbach in 1938, and have been
reproduced herein, sometimes with minor modifications, by John
Q. Ressler and Watson Smith. Without these the task of editing
and interpreting the notes would have been vastly more difficult.
While the objects of material culture from Hawikuh w^ere
shipped to the Museum of the American Indian in New York, the
materials from the more limited excavations at Kechipawan were
divided, one-half to the Museum of the University of Cambridge,
6 INTRODUCTION
England, and one-half to the Museum in New York. The human
skeletal materials that were saved were deposited in the United
States National Museum, in Washington ; some of them have been
studied and the results published by various specialists (Hrdlicka,
1931; Fleming, 1924; Leigh, 1925; Seltzer, 1944). Animal bones
and plant remains were submitted for identification to the United
States National Museum and the American Museum of Natural
History; and identifications made by H. E. Anthony, William R.
Maxon, G. S. Miller, Jr., G. K. Noble, W. E. Safford, and Alex-
ander Wetmore are contained among the Expedition's files.
Although Pueblo Indians had almost certainly lived at the site
of Hawikuh for centuries before the arrival of the Spanish, it was
not the purpose of the Expedition to investigate the earliest re-
mains. Hodge was concerned only with the village as it existed at
the time of discovery and thereafter until its destruction. The
workmen repeatedly came upon walls and objects of the earlier
occupancy beneath later ones, but these were usually not further
investigated. Hodge considered that they did not belong to Ha-
wikuh, that they had been built by an earlier people unrelated
to the builders of Hawikuh or to the Zufiis, and that they had
been long abandoned before Hawikuh itself came into existence.
Today we should classify them as Pueblo HI and early Pueblo IV
and regard them as directly ancestral to historic Hawikuh. It
seems regrettable that they were not excavated. They remain,
however, still quietly at rest beneath the rubble, an enticing lure
to an inquiring archaeologist.
Not much documentation exists of the lighter side of life at
Camp Hendricks de Hawikuh, but that it was sprightly as well as
scholarly is apparent from a few recorded reminiscences. In those
days of the primacy of the Model T the adventures of motoring
from the railhead at Gallup to the site were sometimes exciting,
and the problems of logistics presented many challenges of flooded
arroyos, broken springs, and exploding tires that are the stuff of
anecdote. Hodge was a sterling appreciator of practical joke-
manship, and it is clear that life in camp was enlivened with much
pranksterism of a hearty if sometimes ribald character. A sur-
viving pocket account book kept by Hodge contains some items
of quaint appeal, indicative of the simplicity and comparatively
low expense levels that obtained at that time and place ; but that
luxury was not entirely absent is suggested by entries of two un-
itemized payments to Abercrombie and Fitch of $ 288.95 and
INTRODUCTION 7
$ 160.40 respectively. Mr. Hendricks, who visited the camp occa-
sionally, is said to have viewed roughing it with a somewhat
jaundiced eye, but his ministrations were not always felicitous. In
a letter to him, dated at camp July 13, 1919, Hodge reported:
I understand that the chickens were sent so that we would
have plenty of nice fresh eggs, but the first egg is yet to be
laid, and if one of the hens that was killed by a rat-trap under
the kitchen floor a few days ago is a sample of the rest, I
would recommend that you bring along an extra saw and axe,
and have your teeth filed.
An amusing anecdote is recorded relating to a celebration at
the end of the final season in 1923, when an open house was held
for the neighborhood. Hodge relates that on that night he fed 80
wagonloads of Indians, who consumed "many sheep, several bar-
rels of flour, and a wagonload of watermelons." The final touch
was a display of fireworks that provoked a general stampede.
In compiling this report it has been our aim to produce what
we believe Hodge himself might have written if he had survived
to do so. We have regarded ourselves essentially as assemblers and
organizers of the material that he recorded, and we have limited
our report almost completely to an objective presentation of the
data that he left. No additional excavation has been done, and
while we have all visited Hawikuh again, it has been only in the
spirit of a Sentimental Journey. Where opinions are expressed
they are those already formulated by Hodge himself unless other-
wise indicated. An important qualification of this statement must
be made, however, with respect to the discussions of ceramic
typology and chronology. Forty years ago Southwestern archae-
ology was still in its Age of Innocence and an organized treatment
in modern terms would have been impossible. In view of the further
facts that the sherds were not saved and that Hodge recorded
only rather general and not always comprehensible descriptions
of them, it has been necessary to attempt to establish a typology
in terms derived largely from comparative studies elsewhere,
carried out long after the date of the work at Hawikuh.
It must be emphasized, however, that Hodge was a pioneer in
the use of stratigraphic chronology in American archaeology. Each
room in the pueblo was carefully excavated in successive layers,
and the artifactual contents of each level considered as a unit,
for the construction of a chronological framework. In addition
8 INTRODUCTION
a trench was dug through the accumulated refuse of the central
plaza of the village, about 75 feet in length and 15 feet in maxi-
mum depth.
This trench was excavated in blocks i foot deep, and the sherds
from each block were classified and counted in terms of the ceramic
terminology that was developed by Hodge in the course of the
work. Such stratigraphic procedure is now followed as a matter of
course in archaeological excavations, but at the time of the work
at Hawikuh, Hodge had had few predecessors. Credit for the first
systematic work of this kind in the New World is usually accorded
to Manuel Gamio in Mexico in 191 1. In the United States it had
been applied by N. C. Nelson in 1914, and was used by A. V. Kidder
at Pecos after 1915. Thus, when Hodge applied the method at
Hawikuh in 1917, he was following a path that had been only
recently blazed.
In the preparation of this report comparative references to
other archaeological work in the Southwest are minimal. It is felt
that the presentation of Hodge's Hawikuh should be the central
aim, and only a minor effort has been made to place it in the larger
context of Southwestern history and prehistory. There remain
several phases of Hawikuh archaeology that have not yet been
undertaken at all. A large collection of stone artifacts was sent to
the Museum in New York, as well as many objects of Spanish and
Mexican origin — metal, wood, leather, glass, ceramic. All this
would provide the substance for an extensive and rewarding study
which hopefully may one day be undertaken by competent persons.
It has been omitted here partly because Hodge himself never
attempted it, and partly because time and opportunity have not
been available to us. Nothing is included herein of the work at
Kechipawan.
Although this report has been in all respects a collaborative
effort by aU three author-editors, a certain division of labor was
necessary in the actual writing. In general, the analysis and com-
mentary on the architecture of the native village and of the church
and friary have been done by Smith, while the studies of the
ceramics and burials have been carried out by the Woodburys.
The chapter on the functional interpretation of the Spanish
buildings is entirely the product of Ross G. Montgomery, who
is eminently qualified for this task by his broad knowledge of
Spanish colonial ecclesiastical history and practice, as evidenced
by his definitive monograph on the contemporary Franciscan
INTRODUCTION 9
mission of San Bernardo de Aguatubi (Montgomery, Smith, and
Brew, 1949).
We wish to acknowledge with sincere gratitude the helpful
services of many persons who have contributed to the successful
completion of this volume: Charles O. Turbyfill, for his vivid
reminiscences and helpful guidance in making available for study
the ceramic collections at the Museum in New York ; Louis Schell-
bach, for his excellent plans of the site and for his contributions
to the general history of the expedition; Jesse L. Nusbaum, for
his elucidation of certain of the field records as well as for his
colorful remembrances of days in the field and of the general
background of the operation; Neil M. Judd, for helping to make
available the photograph of the field party shown in the Frontis-
piece ; the National Geographic Society, for their courtesy in per-
mitting us to use this photograph from their archives; the late
George G. Heye, for his cordiality in extending to us the facilities
of the Museum; E. K. Burnett, former Assistant Director of the
Museum, for his assistance in utilizing these facilities; Mrs. Mildred
Brichta, Mrs. Lucy Shoup, Miss Judith A. Hill, and Mrs. Dolores
Y. Cooper for typing much of the manuscript; Miss Evelyn Roat,
for checking the manuscript; John Q. Ressler, for his execution
of the map of burial locations and his preparation for publication
of Schellbach's site plan; G. Robert Lewis, for additional drawings
to supplement those originally completed under Hodge's super-
vision; Kenneth M. Chapman, for providing photographic copies
of the pottery illustrations; Odd S. Halseth, for permission to
quote from the tape recording of the dialogue between Hodge
and himself; Alexander Wetmore, for identifications made at
Hodge's request of bird bones; Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., for similarly
made identifications of mammal bones; David H. Johnson, for
assistance in searching the correspondence files of the Division
of Mammals, U. S. National Museum, for identifications made
for Hodge; Carmelo Guadagno, for his indispensable photo-
graphy of pottery; and Frederick J. Dockstader, the present Di-
rector of the Museum of the American Indian, for his patience,
enthusiasm, and encouragement throughout the gestation of this
report, as well as for his expansive support in making possible its
publication. But most of all we are indebted to Mrs. Gene Meany
Hodge for her great helpfulness in assembling and making avail-
able the field data from her husband's effects, and for her constant
encouragement and readiness to further the entire project.
10 INTRODUCTION
In submitting the results of our labors, we can only hope that
what we have accomplished will be worthy of dedication as a
memorial to one of the great men of American anthropology, whose
remembrance warms the affections and heightens the regard of
countless friends and followers.
Watson Smith, Peahody Museum West of the Pecos
Richard B. Woodbury, Smithsonian Institution
Nathalie F. S. Woodbury, Smithsonian Institution
CHAPTER I
THE NATIVE VILLAGE
General Discussion of Major Architectural
Features of the Pueblo of Hawikuh
THE native village of Hawikuh as it existed immediately
prior to and during the period of Spanish occupation, that
is from some time before A. d. 1300 until about A. d. 1680,
was built on a long, narrow ridge on the eastern or left side of the
valley of the Zufii River, extending into the valley from north to
south, and narrowing to a blunt point at its southerly tip. It was
about 15 miles southwest of the modern village of Zuhi and about
2 J miles east of the bed of the river. The top of this ridge, which
is gently convex, is about 60 feet above the valley floor and about
170 feet broad at its wddest part. Both sides and the tip slope
downward at a gradient of from 25% to 30%, and then quickly
blend into the very gentle slope of the valley floor (Plate i, a-d).
The village was built along the top of the ridge for a distance
of about 400 feet northward from its southerly tip, and extended
across the ridge and partly down its upper slopes to a maximum
width of about 275 feet. Within this area of approximately 3
acres was located a cluster of five bee-hivelike groups, or "houses,"
of solidly massed masonry rooms, probably having been once from
one to three stories high. About 150 feet southeast of the top of
the eastern escarpment, about 40 feet below it, and almost on the
valley floor, was a sixth group of rooms (Figures i, 2). Early
Spanish accounts reported variously that the houses in some of
the villages of Cibola w^ere from two to seven stories high, although
all agreed that three or four stories were usual (Hodge, 1937 a,
pp. 12, 29, 49, 51, 55, and the sources cited therein), but there is
no archaeological evidence at Hawikuh of houses with more than
two or three stories.
These six groups of rooms w^ere referred to in the field notes
by the letters A to F respectively, and they wiU be so designated
throughout this report. They were of irregular sizes and shapes
II
12 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
and were not placed according to any discernible plan with refer-
ence to each other. Between those on the ridge lay open passage-
ways and plazas of casual shapes, varying from lo to 50 feet
across. The total number of rooms in the entire village and the
number occupied at any given time in its history cannot be cal-
culated accurately, but the excavation, wholly or partially, of at
least 340 "columns" of superimposed rooms on top of the ridge
probably represents very nearly the total number ever built there.
But the 30 rooms excavated on the valley floor in House Group F
were only a small portion of the total number existing at that level.
Another large mound, U-shaped in outline, is located about
50 yards northerly from the church, and although this remains
unexcavated, it may contain as many as 100 rooms. This area is
well shown on the plan published by Mindeleff (1891, PL 46) and
it is still clearly visible. Assuming that these rooms were closely
similar to the others, the total number of "columns" may have
been about 470. Nearly all had had at least two levels of occu-
pation, and perhaps one-fourth had had three such levels, so that
the total number of separate chambers occupied at one time or
another may have approached a maximum of about 1060.
How many were ever simultaneously occupied is impossible to
calculate with accuracy, but it was almost certainly never more
than half the total, or perhaps 500, and was probably somewhat
less. This inference is based on the fact that there had been two
successive building periods at Hawikuh, which are distinguishable
mainly by differences in their masonry techniques and in the
ceramic content of the debris that filled their rooms after aban-
donment. Hodge designated these two periods in his notes as
"Ancient" and "Recent" and we shall use the same terms in our
discussions. The excavations indicated that the general area of the
Ancient structures was essentially the same as that of the Recent,
which had usually been built upon the remains of the older build-
ings, the newer walls frequently, though not always, being merely
projections upward of the older ones. This suggests that the total
number of Ancient rooms probably about equalled the number of
Recent ones.
It is unlikely that there was ever a complete abandonment
of the entire village for any considerable period, although, of
course, there were at least two or three short withdrawals during
the Spanish period, as we shall see. But in general the occupation
was essentially continuous for approximately 400 years. As is the
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 1 3
case with cities and villages the world over, there was probably a
continuous process of partial abandonment and reconstruction, as
particular rooms burned or fell into disuse before they were
reoccupied or rebuilt. One can see this process at work to-day in
such places as the Hopi village of Old Oraibi as well as in many
another, and at Hawikuh there must always have been local areas
in temporary collapse while new structures were being built nearby.
Changes in masonry styles and in ceramic taste probably took
place fairly rapidly but not suddenly, and were parts of a con-
tinuous process of development. Some of the Ancient rooms in the
village undoubtedly continued in use contemporaneously with
Recent ones that were actually built much later. Indeed, a number
of the Ancient rooms may have continued in use up to the time
of final abandonment of the village, having been partially recon-
structed and "modernized" during later years.
If we assume that a maximum of perhaps 500 rooms were
occupied at any given date, and if we further assume that the
normal household unit was three rooms, and that an average
family consisted of four persons, the permanent population of
Hawikuh might have been somewhere around 660 people. This
is much less than the ''five hundred famihes" reported by Coronado
in 1540 (Winship, 1896, p. 552) which Hodge calculated at about
1750 people (Hodge, 1937 a, p. 115, note 89). To accept the latter
figure together with the assumption of three rooms and four
persons per family would require about 1320 rooms, which con-
siderably exceeds the total number (about 1060) that we have
estimated were constructed in the entire village during its total
existence, and such a population can be fitted in only by supposing
a village with perhaps 450 rooms of two full stories, some 160 of
them with an additional third story, all simultaneously occupied !
Anything even closely approaching such a situation was mani-
festly impossible, in the light of surviving remains, and we must
conclude that the maximum population was never anything like
that number. If we are concerned with the contemporary Spanish
reports of six stories (Winship, 1896, p. 565), we may very well
explain it by noting the fact that the houses were built in a
terraced manner up the steep slopes of the ridge, the bases of the
lowest rooms being more than 30 feet below the roofs of those on
the summit of the hill — a situation that could easily have given
the impression to the Spanish observers of multi-storied buildings.
Furthermore, Zarate-Salmeron reported that in 1604 the town had
14 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
only no "houses" (Hodge, 1937a, p. 77). What he meant by
"house" is not clear, but his estimate is certainly smaller and
probably more realistic than those of most other contemporary
observers.
Aside from the difference in masonry between Ancient and
Recent rooms there were no other distinctive or consistent vari-
ables except changes in the decorative styles of the pottery; and
the general character of life and the cultural pattern of the inhab-
itants must have remained almost static throughout the four
centuries of occupation, the only major modifications being those
effected by the Spanish introduction in the mid-i7th century of
metal tools, European crops such as wheat and peaches, and the
new Christian religious observances.
Like all Pueblo villages, Hawikuh grew by a process of accre-
tion, and each of the large house groups probably began as a
small nuclear structure of a few rooms to which were added new
ones as need demanded. Rooms were always approximately rect-
angular, although precision was rarely achieved, and hardly ever
were corners exactly square or opposite walls truly parallel. No
consistent orientation was observed, and walls ran in every com-
pass direction. Rooms varied somewhat in size and proportions,
and undoubtedly in function. The larger ones were usually, but
by no means always, equipped with fireplaces and less frequently
with storage bins and raised benches. These were probably the
living quarters; the smaller rooms were less frequently so well
equipped, and probably were mostly used for the storage of food
supphes. Units of from two to four rooms very likely constituted
the household of a family, and, as will be noted later, such units
were sometimes identifiable at the time of excavation.
Although each house group contained rooms varying from
largest to smallest and from nearly square to greatly elongated,
there was sometimes a striking contrast between house groups in
terms of the relative frequency within them of rooms conforming
to certain limits of both size and shape. Without going into
exhaustive detail, we may compare House Groups A and D, which
represent statistical extremes in these characteristics (Figures 6,
14). In the following discussion rooms from Ancient and Recent
levels have been consolidated because no significant statistical
differences in structural features were discovered between them.
Generally speaking the distribution of shapes and sizes of rooms
in the two levels in each group tended to be closely similar.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 15
V Of 53 rooms at both levels in Group A and of 69 rooms in
Group D, the data for which are given in Figure 3, certain con-
trasts may be pointed out. First, the average area of individual
rooms is very much greater in Group A than in Group D, being 87
square feet as compared to 67 square feet. Secondly, the distri-
bution of shapes is very different : in Group A the largest number
(57.7%) were from three-fifths to three-quarters as mde as they
were long, whereas in Group D only 24.6% were in this category.
In Group A no rooms were square or nearly so, whereas in Group D
29% of all rooms were in this form. Other differences are apparent
from the tabulation.
Among the other groups, C, E, and F tended to conform fairly
closely to A ; B fell between A and D, different parts of it closely
resembling one or the other. What all this means in terms of
domestic living pattern, room function, and chronology is not very
clear, but it does seem to be more than fortuitous. It seems likely
that the older rooms tended generally to be smaller and more
nearly square, which would be consistent with chronological in-
ferences from the evidence of ceramic and Spanish artifacts, to
be discussed later. Perhaps longer and heavier beams were avail-
able during the later period, especially after the introduction of
steel axes. Thus, on several grounds Group D appears to have
contained the oldest rooms, with Groups A, C, and F being
generally more recent. A provocative question arises here from the
fact that the Recent rooms of Group B, although apparently
occupied up to the time of the final abandonment of the pueblo,
still tended to remain smaller and more nearly square. Possibly
this can be explained by the fact that in most cases the walls of
the Recent levels in this group were simply extensions upward of
the Ancient ones, which thus established a persistent pattern con-
tinuing into the later era when larger and more elongated rooms
had elsewhere become the mode. It is impossible to fix the date at
which changes in size and shape of rooms took place, but it was
fairly early in the history of the village, prior to the changes in
masonry techniques and in ceramic styles, and well before the
coming of the Spaniards.
WALLS
There was no difference between exterior and interior walls in
any of the buildings at Hawikuh. With very few exceptions all
were built of sandstone blocks laid in crude ashlar form. At no time
l6 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
during the history of the pueblo was the masonry of a very high
order, compared to that of many Southwestern villages of the
Pueblo III era such as those of Mesa Verde or Chaco Canyon, but
it was very much better in the Ancient period than in the Recent.
The usual thickness of walls in both periods was almost uni-
formly II inches, though occasional instances from lo to 20 inches
were recorded. The individual stones used in the Ancient walls
were usually smaller and more neatly shaped than those used in
the Recent walls, and in a few cases were described in Hodge's
notes as "small, thin stones" or "thin sandstone slabs, thoroughly
characteristic" of the Ancient masonry. They were always laid in
abundant mortar, which is described by such terms as "stiff red
adobe," or "hard red clay." Vertical joints between stones of
successive courses were usually broken and were occasionally "well
chinked with spalls," and wall intersections were normally bonded.
(Examples of Ancient masonry are shown in Plates 4, c, d) 15, c;
16, c) . Coatings of adobe plaster were habitual, applied over the
masonry with the hand or some simple tool, such as a corn cob,
the impressions of which are specifically referred to several times
in the notes. Plaster was more frequently preserved on Ancient
than on Recent walls because it adhered more firmly to the heavy
adobe mortar then in use than to the crumbling sandy mortar
later used in most of the Recent walls. Thickness of the plaster
varied, and is usually described in the notes only in general terms,
as "thin" or "heavy," but sometimes it is precisely stated as
having a thickness of from i inch to as much as 4 or 5 inches, and
often comprising 30 to 40 coats — 59 in the extreme case of Room
275 in House Group A, and possibly even more in Room 228 in
House Group E (Plates 10, h', 11, a). In a few instances the plaster
was apphed over a lath framework of sticks and reeds, as in
Rooms 377 and 392 in House Group B, and a few others (Plate
II, h).
A few references are made in the notes to the color of the
plaster, as red or yellow, but whether this indicates the presence
of paint or is merely descriptive of the natural color of the adobe
is usually not clear. In the case of Room 102 in House Group E,
however, the outer layer was "colored with ochre," a circumstance
said to be "unusual but not unique."
The Recent walls were frequently but not always built directly
upon the upper courses of Ancient ones, which had probably
partly collapsed. These were cleared of unstable upper courses
THE NATIVE VILLAGE I7
and carried upward with masonry of Recent type. This adjustment
was purely pragmatic and was frequently not made at a uniform
level in all four walls of a particular room; in many cases the
transition occurred at widely varying heights in the different walls.
It was often impossible to determine the contemporaneity between
walls and floors, because in some cases floors that had been in use
during Ancient times continued in use in later times after the old
walls had been replaced by Recent ones; and in other instances
new floors had apparently been laid between Ancient walls, follow-
ing the clearing out of a room that had been abandoned and later
reoccupied without the necessity for reconstruction of the walls.
Recent masonry was greatly inferior to Ancient ; the individual
stones were larger and less regular in shape and they were laid in
a sandy insubstantial mortar, much less copiously applied. Since
vertical joints were usually not broken and corners were not
bonded, the walls were much less stable, as indicated by the very
frequent mention in the field notes of the collapse of Recent walls
during or immediately after excavation. (Examples of Recent
masonry are shown in Plates 4, a, b; y, d; lo, a; 13, d).
Surface plaster was used as before, but it was of a more sandy
consistency and adhered less firmly to the stones. Hodge remarked
that Recent walls "were laid more to produce regularity of face
than to give stability by bonding."
Adobe Bricks. In a very few cases unfired adobe bricks were
used in Recent walls but never in Ancient ones. Most of them
apparently had been taken from the supply made for use in the
church and friary, for they appear to have been of similar dimen-
sions and character. In Room 386 in Group B an entire wall of
such bricks was built almost against an earlier masonry wall,
perhaps as a buttress. The bricks were laid in sandy mortar with
2-inch intervals and chinked with small stones. Between Rooms
387 and 382 in Group B the foundation course was made of adobe
bricks of the standard size. In the north wall of Room 406 in
Group B, two courses of adobes formed the base of the wall, and
rising from them were four small juniper posts, possibly part of
the framework for a wattle-and-daub partition. These bricks were
not of the standard Spanish form, being 6 inches high by 9 inches
wide, and of variable thickness.
In Room 362 in Group B, the two lowermost courses of a
secondary north wall, built against the original wall, were of stone,
and above these were five courses of adobe bricks, then one course
l8 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
of thin stones, one course of adobes, another course of thin stones,
five more courses of adobes, and two final courses of stone. Room
313 in Group B was a small chamber 7I feet by 5 J feet, constructed
in the exterior angle formed by Rooms 314 and 322. The walls of
these rooms w^ere of stone, but the two new walls of Room 313
were of adobe bricks. In Room 103 in Group E, a part of the north
walls had bulged outward and a repair was effected by a section
of adobe bricks, which Hodge thought were "either taken directly
from the church or the monastery, or left over after the building
of these Spanish edifices in 1629."
Posts and Wattle. In a very few cases, wooden posts were
incorporated into masonry walls as reinforcing agents, sometimes
recessed into a vertical slot made to receive them, and then plas-
tered over flush with the general surface. Examples in Recent
walls were found in Rooms 345 and 351 in Group B and Room 308
in Group C (Plate 6, c). In at least one instance, in the Ancient
level of Room 340 in Group B, a post stood against the face of
the wall, and plaster was carried around and over it.
Walls of wattle construction were extremely rare. In addition
to the possible one mentioned above in Room 406, the only ex-
amples recorded were two interior partitions in Room 117 in Group
C, described on page 81. (Plate 10, a).
Slabs at Bases of Walls. In several instances rows of vertical
stone slabs had been set into the floor and against the walls of a
room. The size of the slabs varied from about i foot to 2 feet in
length and they were up to a foot or more in height. They do not
seem to have had a structural function and were not integral with
the masonry of the walls, but merely stood against it like a base-
board. Sometimes they had been covered with the wall plaster;
in other cases they had been installed after the plastering of the
wall. They usually extended along one, two or even three sides of
a room, though in two cases they existed along only a part of one
wall. In all cases but one they occurred in rooms with fireplaces
and other features, four times in Ancient rooms, and eight times
in Recent (Plates 5, c; 9, 6; 16, ^).
FLOORS
The floors of all rooms in the pueblo, at both Ancient and
Recent levels, were made of earth, sometimes tamped very hard,
sometimes sandy and friable. The field notes describe them in a
THE NATIVE VILLAGE I9
variety of terms: earth, sandy earth, adobe, adobe and sand, sandy
adobe, hard adobe, hard sand. These terms all probably indicate
minor variations of the same thing, and there seems no profit in
attempting to distinguish between them. Sometimes it is recorded
that they had been replastered with successive coats, and in Room
306 in Group C the accumulation was 9 inches thick. Occasionally
the floor was rounded upward at the edges to form a surface con-
tinuous with the plaster on the walls.
In the entire village approximately 670 different floors were
defined, about 300 Ancient and about 370 Recent. The number
of floors has no direct relationship to the number of rooms, because
rooms were frequently rehabilitated by the construction of a new
floor over an older one.
Probably in most cases the floors were laid directly on bedrock
or on solid fiU, but certainly in some cases those of an upper story
were supported by the beams that roofed a lower chamber (Plates
14, d] 15, h). At the time of excavation it was often difficult if not
impossible to determine whether two superimposed rooms had
been occupied simultaneously, but there were certainly some such
instances. One example was the row of upper rooms (329, 345,
387, 383, 381, 382, 427, and 443) in Group B above the long lower
passageway, discussed further on pages 69-71.
In his notes for Room 429 in Group D, Hodge discussed the
uppermost (Recent) floor, which was supported by beams that he
beUeved to have been intact at the time of occupation, so that
both levels of the room had been in use at the same time (Plate
15, h). There were two main transverse beams 5| and 7 inches in
diameter in the entire length of this unusually long room (14 feet
10 inches), with 14 or 15 cross beams over them. He reports that
the upper floor was 4 inches thick, with two fireplaces, and con-
tinues: "To support on two flimsy main-beams the ceihng of a
room having a floor area of approximately 127 square feet, covered
with 4 inches of earth and bearing two stone fireplaces, not to
consider the supplies and various oddments characteristic of a
Zuni dwelling, would seem to have been a hazardous undertaking."
Hodge believed that the upper and lower chambers of Room
155 in Group D were also simultaneously used, and that the single
pair of main beams reinforced by two posts near one end supported
the weight of the upper stone-flagged floor.
Split-level Floors. Although most of the floors were somewhat
uneven, and not perfectly level, only two seem to have been
20 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
deliberately made in two levels. One was in the Recent level of
Room 275 in Group A, where a log had been set into the floor
across the longer dimension of the room to form a step at about
its midpoint. The floor on one side was 3 inches higher than on
the other.
In the Ancient level of Room 378 in Group B the southern
one-third of the floor was 6 inches lower than the rest. No floor
features were found in either area.
Paving Slabs. The use of sandstone slabs for paving was re-
corded on fifteen Ancient floors and nine Recent ones, some ex-
amples occurring in every house group. The rooms with paved
floors had little else in common ; some were large and well equipped
with other features including fireplaces, benches, bins, niches,
workstones; others were small and quite without other features.
Two or three contained quantities of charred corn, for example
Room 124B in Group E, where it lay 2 feet deep. In only three
instances was the paving said to cover the entire floor, but the
incompleteness of the other examples may have been due to the
robbing of the stones for use elsewhere after abandonment of the
rooms (Plate 16, a, c).
In one case, the Recent floor level of Room 430 in Group D,
two rows of four "loom holes" each had been drilled into the slabs.
Both rows were nearly parallel to the long dimension of the room,
one being i foot 6 inches from the west wall, with a longitudinal
range of 4 feet 5 inches; the other 3 feet 5 inches from the east
wall, with a length of 5 feet 8 inches.
Other Floor Features. In addition to paving slabs, fireplaces,
benches, and bins, certain other features were occasionally found
on floors. What Hodge called ' 'work-stones" were found in a few
cases ; these were flat slabs of varying shapes, from i to 2 feet in
horizontal dimensions, set into the floor, and apparently used for
the performance of some task that required a smooth, hard, work-
ing stone base. They were recorded in 8 Ancient and 18 Recent
floors, including at least some in each House Group; all were in
rooms with other features such as fireplaces, benches, and bins, and
were usually, but not always, near fireplaces. One was on a bench.
In only a few cases vertical slabs were found set into floors,
other than those associated with storage bins, benches, or fire-
places, and of course some of these may have been remnants of
such structures. One was in Room 294 in Group C parallel to the
south wall, I foot 9 inches from it, and midway between the east
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 21
and west walls. It was 2 feet 6 inches long, ij inches thick, and
stood I foot 1 1 inches above the floor. About i foot beyond the
slab was a fireplace, and above it in the south wall a window
opening apparently to the plaza. Hodge conjectured that this
slab may have served as a firescreen.
There were only sixteen other examples of vertical slabs, all
seemingly unrelated to other features, four in Ancient and twelve
in Recent floors. Nearly all were set against and perpendicular to
one of the room walls, but in one case they were parallel to and
3 feet from one wall, in two cases they were diagonal, one near
the center of the room, one near the corner; one stood across a
bench. They were recorded in all house groups except A and F
(Plate 8, 5,^).
A feature fairly often found in Pueblo rooms, namely the
embedding of large storage jars below the floor, was recorded only
three times at Hawikuh.
In Room 320 in Group B three were found, two in the Ancient
and one in the Recent level. In the lower floor, which was slab-
paved but with no other features, two jars of Late Polychrome
were sunk to shoulder level and covered with unshaped stone
slabs. One of these was a Matsaki Polychrome jar. Shape 2 (Cat.
No. 10/9260), Figure 69, d. They contained cornmeal. In the Recent
floor, near the east wall and adjoining the fireplace, a plain cooking
pot was embedded to the rim. Surrounding the rim and embedded
in the floor was a circle of small stones, and beside the pot but
below the floor were two manos and several hammerstones. In the
northeast corner of the Recent floor of Room 434 in Group D, a
large bottomless corrugated jar had been sunk to its rim. Hodge
noted: "Some of the Zufiis said that it had been used for cooking
Mpalokia." hepalokia is a form of bread, made from finely ground
corn meal, mixed with boiling water and stirred to a thick consist-
ency. To the mix is added a small amount of fermented meal that
has been masticated in the mouths of young women. It is then
cooked in one of several ways. By one method several stone slabs
are heated in a firepit with a fire of juniper; when thoroughly
hot they are removed, and the firepit is swept clean and lined
with dampened corn husks. The batter, seasoned with salt, is then
spread over the husks and a hot slab is placed on top, followed by
successive layers of batter and slabs. A fire is kindled on the
topmost slab and the entire "sandwich" is allowed to bake over-
night. Another method is to place in the preheated pit a large
22 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
pottery jar filled with the batter, often flavored with dried flowers,
licorice-root, or wild honey, instead of salt. A fire is then built
around the pot, its mouth covered with a slab, and the mixture
baked overnight. According to Baxter (1882, p. 88) this product
was a "sacred festival bread" that looked and tasted like Boston
brown-bread. He also explained that the chewing of the meal
sweetened it, "for the acid of the saliva, uniting with the starch
of the corn, forms sugar. Some of the Zufiis, who can afford to
buy sugar, make their he-per-lo-ki in a way less economical, but
more acceptable to civilized palates." (For further details see
Stevenson, 1915, p. 75; Gushing, 1920, pp. 303-305. 55^, Plate 27.)
In only two cases were there shallow depressions to serve as
pot supports. Both were in Recent levels, in Rooms 355 and 383
in Group B, the former on a corner bench 2 feet 3 inches high, the
latter in the floor. Each room contained a central fireplace and
bench, and Room 383 had also a masonry bin.
FIREPLACES
The most ubiquitous interior feature of the pueblo and cer-
tainly one of the most vital, was its fireplaces. More than 330 were
recorded from a total of approximately 670 defined floor levels.
About 145 fireplaces were found in 300 Ancient floors, a frequency
of about 48%, and about 185 fireplaces in 370 Recent floors, a
frequency of about 50%. Although minor variations in detail were
almost infinite, the vast majority of fireplaces conformed pretty
closely to a standard norm, whose characteristics can be concisely
stated.
The "typical" fireplace was a rectangle, constructed by digging
a shallow pit in the earthen floor of a room, and lining its four
sides with vertical stone slabs almost always about i inch, but
sometimes i| to 2 inches, thick. The bottom or hearth was paved
with a slab in approximately half of the cases, or finished with hard
earth in the others. The side slabs usually extended a few inches
above the floor, but almost as frequently they were flush with it.
The fireplace was more frequently than not located at or near
the center of the floor, but this was by no means general, and a
large number were in other quarters of the room. Very infrequently,
however, were they contiguous to a wall (Plate 6, b), and, even
more rarely, in a corner, the few instances of the latter perhaps
owing their position to adoption of Spanish precedent.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 23
Usually the sides of the fireplaces were closely parallel to the
walls of the room, but in an appreciable number of cases they were
diagonal.
Sizes varied, lengths varying from about 8 inches to almost
2 feet 6 inches, widths from about 6 inches to about i foot 6 inches,
and depths from about 2 inches to about 9 inches. The extremes,
however, v/ere infrequent, and the majority clustered around an
"ideal" measuring from i foot i inch to i foot 6 inches long,
7 inches to i foot wide, and 4 to 7 inches deep.
Square fireplaces (Plate 5, d) were very rare, as were very
elongated ones (Plate 8, a). Very few were circular (Plate 5, b) and
rare examples were pentagonal (Plate 6, d) or hexagonal. Placed
outside and against one of the longer side slabs of perhaps one-
third of the fireplaces were two rounded stones set into the floor and
rising to about the same height as the slab itself. Disused manos
were often employed for this purpose. They were thought by
Hodge to have been placed there "to give support to the round-
bottomed cooking pots when on the fire." (Plates 5, a;6,a,c; 9, d).
In general no significant or consistent differences were observed
in the placement, orientation, or characteristics of fireplaces in
Ancient as opposed to Recent levels, or in any particular house
group as opposed to the others. A detailed statistical study was
made of all features, and a sample of the results is presented in
Figure 4, which compiles all data for the 56 fireplaces in House
Group D. This table illustrates the kinds of detailed data avail-
able from the field notes for all rooms in the pueblo. Many details
are not specifically included here but are available in the original
field notes and on Unisort cards at the Museum of the American
Indian. The range of sizes and variety of features shown there are
closely representative of fireplaces in all other house groups. It
must be concluded that, with very few exceptions, the pattern
of fireplace construction was remarkably complacent throughout
the entire area and history of Hawikuh. (Other examples are
shown in Plates 5, 6, 8, 9, 14, 15, and 16).
In a corner of Room 188 in Group C, the wall was "conspic-
uously smoke-blackened," but there was no fireplace. Hodge re-
marked that it is not "improbable that light fires for cooking or
heating may have been built directly on the heavy earthen floors
of certain dwellings."
In the sections that follow, each house group will be individ-
ually discussed, and specific variations from the norm of fireplaces
24 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
as well as of other architectural features will be emphasized there.
One further general observation should be made, however. Fire-
places did not occur in every room and floor level, but were found
in approximately half of them. Somewhat more than half (57%)
were in rooms that contained no other interior features, about
18% were in association with benches, about 11% with storage
bins, and about 14% with both bins and benches (Figure 5). Fire-
places were probably built only in rooms used for living quarters,
and, if this is so, it would appear that about 45% of all rooms in
the pueblo were devoted to storage or at least to non-dwelling
functions, that about 31% were sleeping rooms {i.e., those with
fireplaces only), and the remaining 24% were the everyday living
and working quarters of the population in which cooking, eating,
meal grinding, and all other indoor activities were carried on. In
general, too, these latter rooms tended to be the larger and more
complex apartments. Some observations on their location in the
pueblo with respect to other rooms will be noted in the discussions
of House Groups A and C (pp. 53-54, 56 and 75-85), and some
possible inferences suggested.
A few fireplaces were recorded well outside the pueblo, appar-
ently in the area of the cemetery, although their exact locations
were not given. One was in the usual rectangular form, though
unusually large, 14 by 23 inches, lined with slabs 5 to 7 inches
deep. Three were circular, respectively 10, 14 and 22 inches in
diameter. Only the largest of these was lined with slabs, which
sloped outward slightly, and had a slab hearth.
Another outdoor fireplace was unique. It consisted of a cir-
cular fiat stone with a large hole in the center, supported about
7 inches above the surface on a circle of smaller stones. It was not
recessed below the natural ground surface.
Hodge had written an interesting discussion of native fire-
places, and the possible evolution of chimneys and hoods. This
hitherto unpublished manuscript is presented verbatim below:
Fireplaces, Chimneys, and Piki Hoods
by
Frederick W. Hodge
The earliest or original fireplaces of the ancient pueblos were
undoubtedly outdoor cooking pits, built to protect the fire from
adverse drafts; later transferred to positions within dwelling
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 25
rooms, and used both for the hghter cooking of the family and
warmth during the winter season. Their usual central location
within rooms allowed the occupants to gather around them, and
we find here, as in all civilizations, that the fireplace was the very
"heart of the home."
In the excavated portion of the pueblo of Hawikuh, the small
slab-lined and curbed firepit centrally located within the room,
predominates, almost without exception.
In the ancient cliff dwellings, fires were sometimes built in
corners formed by the intersection of two walls, but the blackened
condition of the rooms shows that an effective means of conducting
off the smoke had not been invented by the inhabitants.
Before the invention of the flue and chimney hood, the smoke
from the small firepit probably made its way to the outside through
window and door openings, or possibly through vents in the roof,
a custom used in kiva construction today where ceremonial use
has perpetuated an arrangement long since superseded in dwelling-
house construction.
The idea of a rude hood or flue to facilitate the egress of smoke
would not be suggested until the fireplace was transferred from
the center of the room to a corner position, thereby cutting off
the draft from all but one direction. Judged by the evidence
gained from excavation among the pueblos, this fact was not
apparent to the house builders, and the old central firepit re-
mained almost universal until Spanish influence developed the
chimney hood and flue among them.
The fireplaces of the pueblo of Hawikuh are rectangular pits
4 inches to 8 inches deep, 7 inches to 9 inches wide, and lo inches
to 15 inches long, in the greater majority of cases, centrally located
within the room, and curbed and lined with thin slabs of sand-
stone, the curbing extending from flush with the floor to several
inches above it.
The adjacent walls of a corner were probably used to support
the earliest form of hood, but in later times the skill of the Zuni
house builder enabled him to construct a rigid flue and hood
against a side wall, thereby more effectively heating long rectan-
gular rooms, although, in doing so, he still retained the corner
principle by building a short narrow wing wall at right angles to
the main wall.
Victor Mindeleff, in his admirable report on the pueblo archi-
tecture of Cibola and Tusayan (1891, p. 168), says: 'The pueblo
26 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
chimney is undoubtedly a post-Spanish feature, and the best
forms in use at the present time are probably of very recent origin,
though they are associated with fireplaces that have departed
little from the aboriginal form seen at Kin-tiel and elsewhere. It
is interesting to note in this connection that the ceremony con-
secrating the house is performed in Tusayan before the chimney
is added, suggesting that the latter feature did not form part of
the aboriginal dwelling."
Mindeleff found that several distinct types of chimney were
used at Cibola at the time he made his study in 1886-87, whereas
in the more remote Tusayan, the chimney seemed to be still in
the experimental stage. It is known that the conservative people
of the Hopi villages had always been more or less hostile toward
the Franciscans, who were never permanently successful within
their province, although they did establish several missions there-
in. This very conservatism kept the Hopis from adopting the
inventions of the foreigners, and they contented themselves with
the crude contrivances developed within their own culture. Con-
sequently it seems that the modern fireplace of the pueblos is
simply a shifting of the firepit from its central place to a corner
or wall position, and the erection over it of a hood and flue. Its
varied form at present is due to the ingenuity and skill of the
house builder in adapting this principle within the home. The
change was undoubtedly induced by the Spanish, and the degree
of its adoption by the pueblos bears a direct ratio to that of their
acceptance of the priests and their teachings and methods.
The fireplaces of the monastery at Hawikuh are of great im-
portance in that they show the connecting link between the ab-
original and the modern form.
Several reasons, the writer believes, account for the greatly
increased size of the firebox or pit: first, and of greatest impor-
tance, the introduction of the flue and hood, giving egress to the
smoke; secondly, the introduction of the steel axe, w^hich made
easier the cutting of larger timbers after untold generations of
hacking and wearing away the logs with a stone axe, or depending
on such fuel as could be broken by hand without resort to crude
stone implements ; and finally, the acquisition through the Spanish
of beasts of burden, which reduced to a great extent the human
element in the transportation of fuel.
The monastery rooms were much larger than those of the
pueblo proper, and larger fireplaces were necessary for heating
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 27
them. Wood for the fires was available in abundance, and easy
means of cutting and transporting it had been provided. In the
monastery, therefore, large corner fireplaces, from 18 inches by
24 inches to 24 inches by 36 inches, were built in all living rooms.
The church proper, associated chapels, and the corridor about the
court, were originally the only portions of the mission not provided
with means of heating. No chimneys or hoods were found in pla,ce
anywhere, but long, thin slabs of sandstone, such as are used to
build the hoods over the modern Zufii fireplaces, were found in
the debris above and surrounding the firepits below, suggesting
the erstwhile prevalence of hoods and flues above themi.
The earliest or crudest form of hood was constructed by placing
a short supporting pole across the corner of a room at a proper
distance above the floor so that the fire would not destroy it,
arranging upon it sticks to form the framework of a contracting
throat, hood or flue, which was extended through and above the
roof for the proper draft.
This process was probably used in a very elaborate way in
Room 13 in the monastery where a firepit, 3 feet wide and 13 feet,
6 inches long, was found, extending clear across one end of the
room. In this case, probably a fairly large pole was set into the
two outside walls about 3 feet out from the rear wall, and on
this slabs and sticks of wood were placed, leaning against a sim-
ilar pole just under the ceiling, and far enough from the rear wall
to form a properly sized throat or flue, which was continued above
the roof in a series of small chimneys.
Under this great canopy, even as in modern Zufii, large, spe-
cially prepared stones for the preparation of hewe or piki, a paper-
thin bread made on a stone griddle from watery corn-meal, some-
what like a Mexican tortilla, were mounted, and here also, the
heavier cooking was done, since the fireplaces in other rooms served
only for heating and the lighter preparation of food. Again we have
the earliest known occurrence of the now familiar hewe or piki
hood of the pueblos of Zuni and Hopi, and once more we can trace
a prevelent Zufii type of construction to the Franciscan mis-
sionaries.
Another form of hood was constructed by using two smaU poles
set at right angles into adjacent walls, thus forming two sides of
the base of a rectangular hood, the w^alls forming the other two,
and the contracting flue built on this framework, tapering from
two directions to form the flue at the top. Generally the wooden
28 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
canopy was chinked and plastered with adobe mud to conduct the
smoke directly to the outside, at the same time protecting the
wood by the heavy insulation of mud.
From evidence gained during the excavation, the form of hood
most used in the monastery was probably of the corner rectangular
type, differing only from the form described above in that the
supporting members were long, thin slabs of sandstone, tenoned
into the adobe walls \\ith their unsupported ragged or crudely
notched ends just meeting, to form a rectangular opening with the
adjacent walls of the room. In most cases the framing of the hood
to the ceiling was presumably of overlapping sandstone slabs, laid
edge to edge, and tapering from both directions to form the iiue
opening through the ceiling. This hood was heavily plastered to
hold the component parts together.
The chimney above the roof was probably of the form seen
today among the oldest houses of the pueblos. At times it consists
of a circle of spalls laid in adobe on the roof framework, extended
upward as many courses as necessary to bring it above the earth
roof and firewalls, and surmounted by a discarded cooking jar,
the bottom of which has been broken out. In many cases several
jars, so treated, are placed one above another to create the draft
necessary for rapid combustion of fuel and elimination of the
smoke. It may be, how^ever, of all-adobe construction, squarish at
the roof level, but generally rounding until it becomes circular
at the top, conforming more exactly to the shape of the jar which
surmounts it.
The protection and extension of the chimney by the use of
cooking pots appear to have been the common practice in earlier
post-Columbian times. Stone and adobe flue construction now
predominate, but with the introduction of the cheap sheet-metal
stove pipe, pueblo architecture is losing one of its most interesting
and picturesque features.
BENCHES
A commxon feature of Pueblo interiors is a raised area built of
solid earth against a wall, usually rectangular, rising from a few
inches to several feet above the floor, flat-topped, and supported
by masonry or vertical slabs on its exposed faces. Such structures
may be used for a variety of purposes : as seats, as sleeping areas,
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 29
as shelves for holding pots or other objects. They are usually
called benches, regardless of their actual function or their size or
shape, and there were many at Hawikuh.
Examples of various shapes, heights and locations existed in
44 Ancient floor levels, and in 69 Recent ones. No consistent
pattern of size, shape, placement, or construction can be discerned
in the benches of either period, nor in those of any one house
group. They varied from a few inches to more than 3 feet in
height, though relatively few approached the extremes. Length
and width varied even more widely; a few were no more than a
foot long; some extended along an entire wall, and even along
two adjoining walls; some were less than i foot in width, others up
to more than 3 feet, although this extreme was rare. Examples of
benches are shown in Plates 6, c; 8, c, d; g,b, d; i6, a.
The field notes do not always indicate the manner of con-
struction of benches, but many are said to have been made of
plaster-covered masonry and a smaller number of upright slabs.
Probably most of the others were also constructed by the same
means. Surfaces were usually made of tamped adobe, though
rarely they were paved with slabs.
A large bench in Room 314 in House Group B, which Hodge
called "one of the most interesting rooms in Hawikuh" (Plate 9, b),
is described on page 73.
A very narrow bench in Room 245 in House Group C was
reinforced by three vertical posts set behind the masonry face.
The incidence of benches in Groups D and E was surprisingly
small, only 13 in Group D (seven in Ancient, six in Recent levels),
and six in Group E (two in Ancient, four in Recent levels).
In one Recent level of Room 430 in Group D, a complex bench
was described by Hodge as follows:
The dimensions of the main part were 3' ij" n-s by 2' 6"
e-w, and the distance from the north wall was only 3' 11".
The retaining wall of masonry was 8" thick and mostly 9"
high, but a couple of courses at the south end rose 6 J" above
the hard adobe bench top. The south face was a neat slab
on edge, extending outward 1' 4" from the east wall of the
room; the remainder of the face was of adobe, somewhat
broken down, in which a mano was embedded upright. It is
probable that the two higher courses were the remnant of a
seat, as this part of the west face of the structure reached
30 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
above the upper floor. Extending northward from the wider
part of the bench was another, 2' 4" long, 1' 0" wide, and
only 5" high, its faces of plastered masonry, the top of hard
adobe. In the top of this narrow portion, i' 4" from its north
end and 8" from its western face to center, was a roundish
hole 4J" in diameter and 9" deep, containing decayed wood,
as if a beam support had been placed there.
Benches were relatively more frequent and usually more elab-
orate in Group F than in the other groups, especially in Recent
levels.
Statistical analyses were made of benches in terms of size,
construction, placement in the room, association with other in-
terior features, and overall comparisons between Ancient and
Recent levels, and between house groups. Although clearly sig-
nificant results were not achieved, a compilation of some of these
data is shown in Figure 5.
STORAGE BINS
Storage bins were a common feature of many rooms in all
house groups; they occurred in 22 rooms in Ancient levels, and
in 63 rooms in Recent. Like benches, they conformed to no con-
sistent pattern of size, placement, or associations, either in Ancient
or Recent periods, or in any one house group as opposed to others.
Most were rectangular and were formed of upright slabs of
stone set into the floor, although sometimes they were built en-
tirely or in part of masonry. All were built against room walls,
often in a corner (Plates 6, a; S,b), so that one or two of their
sides were formed by these walls. Very often bins were contiguous
to or incorporated in a bench (Plate 8, c), or a single bin had been
subdivided by a partition of masonry or slabs. Very rarely trian-
gular bins were constructed by the placement of a slab diagonally
across the corner of a room. Some bins had stone slab covers
(Plate 6, b, d. Other examples are shown in Plates 8, ^; 9, <i; 12, c).
Sizes of bins varied greatly, lengths ranging from a minimum
of I foot 3 inches to a maximum of 8 feet 4 inches, widths from
8 inches to 3 feet 6 inches, and depths from 4 inches to 2 feet
I inch. But the extremes were rare and most clustered around
lengths in a range between 2 feet 4 inches and 4 feet 3 inches,
widths between i foot 3 inches and 2 feet, and depths between
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 3 1
6 inches and i foot. The bottoms of nearly all bms were at floor
level, though a very few were 3 to 4 inches below it.
It would be fruitless to discuss the enormous variety in minor
details in the 107 bins recorded and described, but individual
descriptions of a few may be useful.
In the Ancient level of Room 223 in House Group B, was a
small cist in a long masonry bench, covered with an irregularly
shaped slab having a circular aperture about 3 inches in diameter
(Plate 8, c). In the cist were found three small earthenware animal
figurines, two of them consisting of heads only.
One bin in the Recent level of Room 11 1 in Group E was a
complex structure extending entirely across the northern end of
the room. It was composed of a wall i foot 7 inches high and about
I foot 7 inches from the north wall of the room and was described
by Hodge as follows :
The western two-thirds of this wall was built of adobe
bricks from 10" to 12" wide, the eastern third of stone ma-
sonry plastered on its exposed face. This low wall formed two
bins, divided 2' g" from the east wall of the room by a slab
partition 2" thick, which continued outside the front wall of
the bin in the form of two smaller stones set on edge. One of
the stones forming the coping of the eastern end of the bin
was part of a metate, and part of a coarse lava mano formed
one of the building stones of the north wall of the room, back
of the bin. The western portion of the bin was filled with
refuse of fallen walls and with fragments of baking-stones,
manos, etc. The eastern bin was filled with sand, mingled
with which were many rude figurines of clay, almost entirely
unfired, together with several miniature, almost shapeless,
pots of clay. With these objects were: a bone awl, a small
irridescent shell pendant, and a small univalve bead. As soon
as found, the Zuni recognized in this deposit of figurines a
custom still practised at Zuni just before the close of the year
for the magical increase of property represented by the clay
forms, in the present case domestic animals, fruits, etc. {see
Parsons, 1919). Many such images were found at Hawikuh,
chiefly in the village refuse, but none so crude as those re-
covered from this bin.
The adobes forming the western end of the bin wall had
probably been taken from the church or the monastery; it is
32 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
much less likely that they were specially made for the con-
struction of the bin, otherwise its entire front wall probably
would have been built of the same material. The width of
lo'' to \2" as compared with a width varying from lof" to
1 1 J" in adobes taken from the chapel, shows hardly enough
difference to indicate that they could have been made at any
time other than that during which the Franciscan mission
buildings were erected.
Granaries. At least three bins in Group B were of a special
character that Hodge called "grain bins." They occurred in Rooms
324, 414, and 428. All were placed in the southeast corners of their
respective rooms, their front walls made of plastered masonry in
a rounded rectangular form. The one in Room 324 (Plate 15, c)
is described by Hodge as having been built on the lower of two
floors, but it extended slightly above the upper floor, which was
about I foot 7 inches above the lower. Both floors were probably
Recent. The masonry wall of this bin was double, 2 feet 10 inches
by I foot 5 inches in outside dimensions. The other two grain bins
were in Ancient levels. The one in Room 414 (Plates 14, a\ 15, a)
was double and rose from a bench on the fifth floor, 14 feet below
the present surface, but its vents were at the level of the higher
fourth floor, more than 4 feet above. One bin was set into the
southeast corner, and at its upper extremity measured i foot
4 inches by i foot i inch inside, with walls about 4 inches thick.
In the corner formed by this bin and the eastern wall, a second
one was built later, measuring i foot i inch by 7 inches inside,
with walls 5 inches thick. The walls were well plastered. The
further description of this feature, as contained in the field notes,
is not entirely clear, and will be quoted in full:
The lower vent was in the front of the platform, 4" from
its east end, the terminus of a horizontal shaft that extended
through both vertical ones. The mouth of this vent, 6'' square,
was capped by a stone lintel and was provided with an adobe
sill slightly above the floor. In building the later shaft evi-
dently some of the stones in the lower part of the north wall
of the southern one were removed in order to permit the grain
to pass into the northern one and thence to the outlet. Round
sticks in the refuse at the bottom of the older shaft probably
indicated how its lower part had been supported, a stone
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 33
projecting from the corner of the room within this shaft prob-
ably serving as a partial support. The horizontal shaft north
of the vertical ones was roofed with slabs, rather rudely set,
while the main support of the northern shaft was a thick
stone that extended from the platform to the east wall, but
did not enter it. Whether an upright stick may have given
support to this eastern end is not known, but there was found
in place a stick extending diagonally across the northwest
corner from the west wall of the shaft to the house wall,
where it entered a hole in the masonry. For some unknown
reason the bottom of the shaft was slightly lower than the
level of the floor.
The third grain bin was in Room 428, adjoining Room 414,
and is described as follows in the field notes :
The most important feature in the room was a chimney-
like grain bin in the southeast corner (in which corner all
such structures were found), rising 5' 6" above the floor and
therefore 6'' below the surface of the third-level room, the
upper outlet, for some unknown reason, having been sealed
with floor plaster. The structure was built of masonry, with
red adobe mortar, well rounded, and was covered with black-
ened plaster half an inch thick, like the walls of the room.
The outer dimensions of the bin were as follows : At the upper
part and for about i' lo" downward, 4" n-s and i' 0" e-w;
thence its form changed gradually to 1' 9" n-s by 1' 1" e-w
at the bottom. The inner size at the top was 1' 2" n-s by
9J" e-w, and, below the swell 1' 2" n-s by i' o" e-w. The inner
surfaces of the walls were plastered. The lower vent, 9" wide
by 7" high, was on the north side adjoining the east wall at
floor level. A benchlike structure, i' 11" wide and i' 8" high,
built after the wall had been plastered, extended along the
south wall and was wide enough for its northern edge to extend
past the front of the bin a couple of inches, where it joined the
east wall of the room. It was in this benchlike structure that
the vent of the bin opened. A large slab 2' 5" long, i' 4" high,
i" thick and partly embedded in the floor, extended from
the east wall in front of the bin, and doubtless served as a
barrier to prevent the grain from scattering. Resting upright
against this slab was another i' 2" by 9' ^' by f" which
evidently had been used for closing the lower opening. Within
34 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
the shaft was much decayed yellowish material resembling
cornmeal, mixed with which were grains resembling wheat.
It was not charred.
The rooms containing the grain bins were otherwise undis-
tinguished, and exhibited no other unusual features, except that
the floor of each was fully paved with slabs. Even this, however,
was not unique, because at least five other rooms in the Ancient
levels in Group B were paved. (Rooms 320, 326, 339, 363 and 391).
Statistical analyses of the characteristics of all bins were made,
but without apparently significant results except in regard to their
associations, data for which are compiled in Figure 5.
MEALING BINS
One of the most surprising circumstances in the excavation of
Hawikuh was the small number of metate emplacements or meal-
ing bins. Only seven were discovered, all but one in Recent levels.
Hodge remarked that "while the fireplaces were rarely disturbed
when the level of a floor was raised by filling or the house aban-
doned, mealing bins were almost invariably dismantled, and con-
sequently these structures, which must have been in very common
use at Hawikuh, were very rare."
In Group A the only example was in Room 235, formed by
two side slabs perpendicular to the west wall, i foot 4 inches high
and 2 feet 4 inches apart, the floor paved with small slabs. The
room contained no other features. In House Group B, only two
came to light, one in the Ancient level of Room 377 so broken
that its original form and size could not be recorded.
The room also contained a fireplace and bench at its opposite
end. The other mealing bin was in the Recent level of Room 382
(Plate 9, a). It was a double bin almost exactly in the center of the
room with compartments placed side by side, so that two operators
could kneel with their feet against the north wall. The ends were
each formed of two slabs set end-to-end for a total width of about
5 feet, and i foot 8 inches apart. A transverse dividing slab
3 inches high, and one side slab 6 to 9 inches high were in place,
but the other side slab was missing. Thus, each compartment
measured internally about i foot 7 inches by about i foot 11
inches. In the western division were two metates. Other metates
and manos were scattered about the room. In the eastern com-
partment was a metate with a mano lying on it. Around this
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 35
metate, embedded in the floor of the bin, were a mano, part of
another, and three flat stones. A storage bin stood near the south-
west corner of the room, which contained no other interior fea-
tures nor even a doorway.
There were no meaHng bins in House Group C.
The only meaHng bin in House Group D was in a corner of the
Recent level of Room 155. No fireplace or other feature was asso-
ciated with it. The bottom of this bin was formed by two "metate-
like slabs,'' a mano, and a fragment of a baking stone, all of which
were supported on the vertical sides of a storage bin that stood
on the next earlier floor 11 inches below. The mealing bin was
enclosed by vertical slabs 5 inches high and was 2 feet i inch by
I foot 5 inches in size.
Only one mealing bin was found in Group E, in the Recent
level of Room 103, which was one of the most well-equipped rooms
in the group, with benches along two walls, a fireplace, and an
adobe wall along part of one side. The mealing bin was placed
against a masonry bench at the west side, and measured 2 feet
5 inches by 2 feet i inch. A metate was in place within it, a mano
lay outside. The sides were upright slabs 11 inches high.
Only two mealing bins were found in Group F, both in Recent
levels, and neither complete. The one in Room 229 stood against
the south (or long) wall near the east wall. It was 2 feet 8 inches
long by I foot 6 inches wide and 7I inches deep. Its slab sides were
heavily plastered inside with adobe 4 to 5 inches thick. A metate
lay on the floor outside the bin. In Room 249, only two long slabs
end-to-end remained of what may have been one side of a former
mealing bin.
BEAMS, ROOFS, AND HATCHWAYS
Although there was surviving evidence in 122 rooms for the
use of beams for the support of roofs or of upper floors, in only
four instances was such a feature still intact. Remains usually
consisted of sockets in the walls, sometimes with fragments of
beams in them ; and there were occasional sections of beams lying
on floors or in the debris. Some general conclusions can be drawn
from the surviving evidence, however:
Roofs were constructed by setting from two to five main beams
horizontally across the shorter dimension of the room, each end
recessed in a prepared socket in the masonry wall. Usually the
socket penetrated only a few inches into the wall, but sometimes
36 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
it pierced the entire thickness so that the end of the beam pro-
truded into the adjoining room. Sockets often were carefully made,
with slab sills and lintels (Plate 13, c). The main beams varied in
diameter from 3 to 11 inches and tapered considerably from butt
to tip, since they were simply natural logs unmodified except by
the removal of branches and bark. The intervals between them
varied from i foot 6 inches to more than 4 feet ; they seem to have
been placed rather whimsically in this respect, although very
likely the partial collapse or demolition and partial reconstruction
of the walls had in many cases obscured the original pattern.
At right angles to the main beams and directly upon them
were placed smaller poles or sticks from i|^ to 5 inches in diameter,
at intervals varying from 8 inches to i foot 6 inches ; these were
also let into wall sockets, or occasionally merely stuck into
crevices in the masonry, and were not always individually long
enough to extend completely across the room (Plates 14, a,b, d;
15, b). Upon them was laid brush, grass, or bark, and then pre-
sumably earth or sod, all in the usual Pueblo manner. In most
cases the butt ends of surviving beams appeared to have been axe
cut, but Hodge noted a few instances of burning.
In those cases where they were recorded, all of which were in
lower or Ancient waUs, the heights of main beam sockets above
their corresponding floors, thereby marking the clear vertical
dimensions of the rooms, varied usually between 5 feet 3 inches
and 6 feet 5 inches, although in one case Hodge noted the height
at only 4 feet 5 inches.
Rarely two main beams were set contiguously in pairs. There
were only four cases of this practice, all of them in smaU rooms
in which the paired beams provided the only roof support. In
one, Room 263 in Group F, a set of three beams was placed with
intervals of only 3 inches between them. In Room 192 in Group E,
two main beams were placed diagonally from opposite corners,
with a third at mid-point across the short dimension of the room.
In Rooms 210 and 248 of Group F were two nearly squared beams,
about 12 inches on a side, doubtless taken from one of the Spanish
buildings.
Posts providing additional support for roof beams were few,
evidence being recorded in only 17 rooms. They may have been
inserted only where a beam had split or broken, for they were not
placed in accordance with any consistent pattern, some being near
the center of the room, some against walls (Plate 14, c).
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 37
Hatchway Frames. Although doorways existed through the
walls of some rooms, many others must have been accessible only
by means of hatchways in their roofs. Since nearly all roofs had
collapsed, little direct evidence of such openings was found, but
Hodge speaks of "numerous examples, mostly in fragments," of
what had probably once been stone frames and covers for hatch-
ways, and nine instances are specifically mentioned. Unfortunately
none of these is adequately discussed; they are described merely
as "a large annular stone," a "circular hatchway frame and a large
flat stone, pecked to shape," "a large stone ring," or the like.
Twice the frames are said to be semi-circular, indicating that
"the frame had been used in connection with a hatchway against
a coping surrounding the roof, otherwise it would have been round,
with a complete central hole for passage, like others found in the
ruins." Examples are shown in Plate 12, a, b, c.
One ladder was found, "a heavy log with the stub ends of the
limbs remaining" as footholds.
WALL OPENINGS
Rectangular openings through walls that were large enough to
permit the passage of an adult human being can be regarded as
doorways, while those too small for this purpose probably served
as windows or portholes. In addition, there were sometimes re-
cesses or niches in the walls that did not extend all the way
through. No consistent pattern of placement of any of these
features was recognized, except for the significant fact that in
Groups A and C, nearly all openings were between rooms in what
have been regarded as consolidated dwelling units rather than
transversely between rooms of different dwelling units (pp. 53-54).
Doorways. Of 244 doorways recorded, 102 were in Ancient and
142 in Recent walls. They varied in height between i foot 3 inches
and 4 feet 6 inches, in v/idth between i foot and 2 feet 5 inches.
It was not always possible to determine the height of the sill above
the floor because of uncertainty as to which of several successive
floors actually corresponded to the door at the time of its con-
struction and use. Heights ranged, however, all the way from floor
level to 4 feet above it.
Although the field notes are often silent, in many cases the
nature of sills, lintels, and jambs is recorded. In 25 specific in-
stances sills were recorded as stone slabs, one of these a discarded
38 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
metate, but Hodge states that sills were "more frequently" of
masonry, by which he probably meant that the opening merely
surmounted one course of stones in the wall, and that no specially
constructed sill was inserted.
Lintels in 30 cases were recorded as formed of a single stone
slab; in two cases of two slabs each, one above the other; and
in 26 cases of a single stone slab supported by wooden sticks. In
12 cases, lintels of sticks only were noted (Plate 6, a), and one
unique lintel in Group B between Rooms 395 and 426, at the
Ancient level, was made of two flat pieces of wood "like weaving
battens" set on edge. Two stone arrow points lay upon them, and
above these, two stone slabs, i inch and 3 inches thick respectively.
In some cases one or both jambs were formed of upright slabs.
(Examples are shown in Plates 7, a, c, d; 13, d).
A good many doorways had been sealed with masonry (Plates
y,c,d; 16, c), or, rarely, with a slab fitted into position and luted
with plaster (Plate 7, a).
Horizontal placement of doorways in the walls varied widely,
although there was a recognizable preference for them to be located
at or near the centers of walls, and, rarely, at or near corners.
Doorways were almost always interior and the two or three that
opened on the plaza were said by Hodge to be "unusual, as any
but tiny window openings in outer walls were almost unknown."
Windows. Wall openings too small for the passage of a human
being were called windows or portholes. They were uniformly
rectangular in shape, but varied a good deal in size and placement
in the walls. No consistent differences were noted between windows
in Ancient and Recent walls, or between those of any one house
group as opposed to others.
Of 127 windows recorded, 39 were in Ancient walls, 88 in
Recent. All were rectangular, and in only a few instances were
details of construction recorded (Plates 9, 6; 12, d; 13, b; 16, c).
Sills were mentioned in five cases, three being of stone slabs, and
two of adobe. Lintels were said to be of slabs in 22 cases, of a
mano in one instance, and of sticks in two. In at least two cases
a former doorway had been partly sealed with masonry, leaving a
smaller window aperture (Plate 16, c). Heights varied between
3 inches and 2 feet, widths between 4 inches and i foot 4 inches;
and heights of sills above the floor level between 4 inches and
4 feet 8 inches. In contrast to the doorways, a fairly large number
of windows opened to the exterior. These may also have served
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 39
as loopholes for defense, as Melchior Diaz wrote, and as Hodge
regarded them (Hodge, 1937 a, pp. 48, 115).
Niches. The term niche is applied to any small recess in a wall
that does not penetrate completely through it. They were not
numerous at Hawikuh, but were fairly evenly distributed among
the house groups and betw^een Ancient and Recent levels. Of 65
niches recorded, 30 were in Ancient and 35 in Recent levels. Their
placement in the walls was haphazard; heights varied between
2 inches and i foot, widths between 2J and 9 inches, and heights
of sills above floor level between 3 inches and 4 feet 9 inches
(Plates 6,^; 9, h),
A few niches were recorded as circular; two had slab lintels,
one a wooden lintel, and occasionally they were plastered inside.
Usually, though not always, niches occurred in large rooms also
containing fireplaces, benches, and bins. Only one was reported as
containing any object — a paint mortar in Room 201 of Group C.
Hodge had written a short account of "glazing" methods in
use in the prehistoric Southwest. This hitherto unpublished manu-
script is presented verbatim below.
Window Openings
hy
Frederick W. Hodge
The method of protecting the "light" or window openings in
the early Mission buildings from the outside elements is a point
on which no definite information can be given. Nothing in the
Spanish archives regarding the missions sheds any direct light on
this problem, nor can any source of information of later periods
be found.
It is the writer's opinion that the use of thin slabs of crys-
talline selenite (gypsum crystal), which was used as a semi-trans-
lucent lighting medium for small openings by the Pueblos, after
the advent of the Spanish, and before the commercial use of glass,
was the invention of the Franciscan padres, since in no prehistoric
site has selenite been used in this way. Bandelier, in studying
innumerable ancient Pueblo ruins, never once found selenite used
as a lighting medium.
Selenite is found in many parts of the Southwest, some not
far distant from the Pueblos, and with rare skill, slabs up to ten
40 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
by eighteen inches of irregular outline, averaging one-half to one
inch in thickness, have been removed from the quarries.
The Pueblo method of glazing an opening with selenite was
to select pieces of the largest size that would roughly fit against
one another and set these on edge as a mosaic in a previously made
opening in which small upright sticks had been imbedded to serve
as supports for the slabs. The spaces between the slabs were
ofttimes chinked or filled with clay to strengthen the window.
Possibly the frequent occurrence of drilled pieces of selenite
in the later buildings of Hawikuh suggests a means of lacing
together the component slabs forming the window, or of binding
the slabs to the upright sticks, which would make the window
glazing more lasting and permanent.
Since the method of closing window openings so that some
light could still enter was not in use in pre-Spanish time, and was
probably the invention of the padres, it is only natural to presume
that under their skillful direction, openings of considerable size
in the Mission buildings were glazed with selenite, and that the
few remaining windows in the modern pueblos are but the sur-
viving examples of an invention, now discarded because of the
introduction of glass.
PRE-HAWIKUH STRUCTURES
At a point "652 feet westwardly from the northwest corner
of Hawikuh" were discovered and excavated two circular kivas,
which have been fully described in print (Hodge, 1923). Hodge
believed that they "bear no relation to Hawikuh except that a
small room was built by the earliest Hawikuh people within each
of them, and a few interments were made adjacent thereto. Gen-
erally speaking they are of the type of kivas found within the
San Juan drainage, and were built and abandoned long before
Hawikuh was settled." (Hodge, 1922, p. 11). In addition to these
kivas numerous other architectural evidences of early occupation
were found beneath the lowest walls of what Hodge considered
the proper village of Hawikuh.
The long north wall of House Group A was built "on the
foundation of a prehistoric house, the masonry of which ... is
much superior to that of the later structure .... Refuse had accu-
mulated here to a depth of 2 to 4 feet above the remaining walls
of the prehistoric house before the recent houses were built."
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 4I
Six rooms of this lower structure were wholly or partially
excavated, and are shown on Figure i. The field notes provide a
fairly detailed description of these rooms, but nothing distinctive
was found in them. Apparently other rooms existed in the same
area, but no further investigation was made.
Although Spanish objects were found in the refuse covering
these rooms, the fill within them contained no Spanish objects
and no "recent pottery." "There were many potsherds of the
oldest type (black or green glaze on red or orange particularly),
in addition to fragments of plain and decorated vessels, . . . and a
few corrugated sherds."
Along the western slope of the ridge, about 15 feet to 25 feet
west of House Group C and from 5 to lo feet below it, lay a
complex of rooms that were only partially excavated, and for
which the field notes are summary. About 25 rooms were identified,
mostly buried by the refuse deposited on the slope, presumably
from House Group C. There must have been two building periods
in this block of rooms, because in several instances some of "these
walls had been built over and across the walls of other and more
ancient houses." Only two rooms were reported to contain floor
features, one having a rectangular fireplace i foot 3 inches long
by ii| inches wide; and the other containing three thin upright
slabs parallel to each other and perpendicular to the east wall,
"as if designed for metates."
Burials occurred in several rooms, but these were clearly in-
trusive. The presence of ceramic remains was mentioned only in
Room 8, at a level of more than 14 feet below the surface. At
least 14 vessels (whether complete or fragmentary is not stated)
were recorded, and described as follows:
Black-on-white (i bowl, i jar)
Black-on-white inside, white-on-red outside (bowl)
Dark green glaze-on-red inside, white-on-red outside (bowl)
Plain gray inside, plain red outside (bowl)
Thick glaze-on-white inside, terra cotta outside (bowl)
Thick glaze-on-white inside, plain white outside (bowl)
Thick glaze-on-white inside, white-on-terra cotta outside
(bowl)
Cream inside, dark brown-on-orange outside (bowl)
Black-on-white-on-terra cotta inside, plain terra cotta outside
(bowl)
42 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Plain gray inside, very dark green glaze-on-white outside (jar)
Red-brown-on-gray (dipper handle)
Very dark shading to purplish gray inside, gray slip outside
(bowl)
Plain terra cotta inside, white-on-terra cotta outside (bowl)
The only comment on this galaxy of specimens w^as : "All sherds
show pottery of the old type."
On the basis of the meager records, little can be said of these
rooms except that they must represent, as do certain other rooms
beneath some of the house groups, a period of occupation prior to
that which was the primary objective of the excavations. It is
quite evident that Hodge considered these early remains as having
no connection with Hawikuh, and he refers to them as having
been built and abandoned long before Hawikuh was founded. He
felt that they had been built by a people unrelated to the inhab-
itants of Hawikuh and belonging to "a culture quite different
from that of the Zufii people." Hodge's expressions to this effect
are frequent. (See Hodge, 1918, pp. 367, 371; 1922, p. 11; 1923,
pp. 9-10; 1924 &, pp. 35-36; Harrington, 1929, pp. 13, 15.) It
seems certain that an extensive village existed on the site during
Pueblo III and early Pueblo IV, and we would feel to-day that it
must have been directly ancestral to the later structures. Never-
theless, it was not a part of the Expedition's program, and it still
awaits archaeological attention.
KlVAS
One of the most surprising features of Hawikuh was the almost
complete absence of kivas, although at nearly every other exca-
vated Pueblo site of comparable size and date numerous kivas
have been found. At Awatovi, which was contemporary with
Hawikuh and which in so many other respects closely resembled
it, there were literally dozens of them (Smith, 1952, p. 10).
Except for the two "pre-Hawikuh" kivas referred to in the
preceding section (pp. 40-41), however, only one clearly recognizable
kiva was found, despite the very extensive excavations carried
out. Since it has been fully described and illustrated elsewhere by
Hodge (1939), we will discuss it here only very briefly. It was
situated in the plaza between House Groups B and C, its roof
7 feet below the modern surface. It was approximately rectangular
in form, measuring about 21 feet by about 14 feet, with masonry
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 43
walls "almost as poor as one can imagine," with a maximxum
inside height of 6 feet ii inches. The floor was entirely paved with
squared slabs of sandstone into which rows of loomholes had been
drilled, and the roof, which was found intact, was formed of eight
main beams with many small cross beams. A rectangular hatchway
gave access through the roof and was surrounded by a stone
coping. A broad bench extended across the south end of the kiva,
and beneath it was a horizontal ventilating tunnel leading to a
vertical shaft beyond the south wall. A firepit was set into the
floor in front of the opening of the ventilator, protected from the
draft by a vertical slab about i foot high. The walls were heavily
plastered but not painted.
If we can interpret the character of the masonry from Hodge's
description as being "Recent," then the kiva must have been built
not very long before the coming of the Spanish, and it was probably
suppressed and filled soon thereafter, though perhaps not imime-
diately, since Spanish objects were found in the fill.
As Hodge notes (1939, p. 211), "A significant change took place
during the historical period, for whereas the typical Zufii kiva in
preceding times was subterranean and occupied a site apart from
the domiciles, it later became a part of the house group as at Zuiii
and Acoma pueblos to-day, hardly distinguishable from the com-
mon dweUings." We would not expect, therefore, to find clearly
distinguishable kivas in the later history of Hawikuh, but it re-
mains almost inexplicable that there were none associated with
the Ancient levels, although Hodge felt that Room 314 in House
Group B (described on pages 71-74) might possibly have served
as a kiva. Hodge himself believed that other kivas might have
been found elsewhere beneath the plaza if that area had been
completely excavated, but certainly there was not sufficient space
for many. He noted Luxan's report that the Indians had "estufas"
for every 15 or 20 persons (Hodge, 1939, pp. 209-210), but felt
that this would have been quite impossible at Hawikuh, because
the number of houses reported by Zarate-Salmeron in 1604 was
only no, suggesting a population of about 400, and requiring 20
to 25 kivas (Hodge, 1939, p. 210). On the other hand, Obregon
indicated in 1584 that each New Mexico pueblo had only a single
kiva (Hodge, 1939, p. 210).
What is more interesting than this rather fruitless speculation
is Hodge's statement that "the Zufii people forsook their pueblos
more than once between the years 1540 and 1680, and that during
44 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
one of these periods Hawikuh fell into decay, only to be rebuilt
later." The excavations conducted at the site amply proved this,
for the latest dwellings of the pueblo were erected above the level
of a considerable depth of sand and refuse that had accumulated
over the roof level of the kiva (Hodge, 1939, p. 214). He further
stated that this fill was "a comparatively level stratum of drift
sand two feet deep, below which were intermingled sand, ash, and
house refuse . . . which had increased as the plaza level was raised
until the base of the deep drift-sand layer . . . was reached. This
was the plaza level at the time the pueblo was forsaken" (Hodge,
1939, p. 195). It is clear, then, that he felt that the entire village
had continued in occupation for a considerable period after the
suppression of the kiva by the friars (probably in 1630), but had
later been completely abandoned for a period sufficiently long to
allow 2 feet of sand to accumulate. It would seem that the date
of the revolt of 1632 would have been too early, in view of the
accumulation of refuse below the drift-sand, but it might have
been possible, since the Indians are said to have stayed away for
three or four years after that, a period possibly sufficient for the
accumulation of 2 feet of sand.
Although no excavation was carried out beneath the nave or
the sanctuary of the church, a few rooms were discovered below
the north wall of the church and the cemetery. It is possible,
therefore, that a kiva might once have existed in that area, and,
inasmuch as it was customary for the Spanish to erect Christian
altars directly above native Indian sacred places, they may have
placed the altar of their church at Hawikuh above an existing
kiva. This practice was followed at Awatovi, where the sanctuary
stood exactly over a kiva that had been purposely filled with sand
(Montgomery, Smith, and Brew, 1949, pp. 65-67, Figure 10). Thus,
it seems plausible to suppose that a kiva may underlie the sanc-
tuary, although no effort was made to find it.
ARTIFACTS
In the excavation of the pueblo, each room was dug as a unit
in successive stratigraphic levels. These levels were not, however,
of standard depth. The uppermost level in each room extended
from the surface to the floor first encountered, and the character
of the fill as a whole was recorded in general terms. Subsequent
collecting and recording units were determined by the intervals
THE HATIVE VILLAGE 45
between successive floors, and varied in depth from a few inches
to several feet. Furthermore, no numerical count was made, either
in terms of totals or of typological groups, of the ceramic or other
contents of each level. The field notes on pottery usually contained
only general statements indicating relative abundance of various
types, or merely recording the presence or absence of particular
types.
Non-ceramic Objects
Descriptions of artifacts other than pottery, both native and
Spanish, were also very meager, and usually serve only to indicate
the presence or absence of certain classes of objects, for example,
manos, metates, axes, awls, points, or items of bone, glass, iron,
copper, etc. In contrast to the record for architecture and, to a
lesser extent burials, Hodge's notes and papers contained no sys-
tematic summaries or discussions of non-ceramic artifacts, even
in preliminary form. The objects themselves are in the Museum
in New York, where they are available for study, but since they
have not yet been systematically examined, their inclusion in this
monograph has not been feasible, exept in a few special cases in
which the field notes provided more than the usual information.
From these limited and imprecise data only general inferences
can be drawn as to the chronology of the fill in the several rooms,
but it is still quite possible to arrive at some significant conclusions.
For present purposes, then, we shall ignore all non-ceramic
native artifacts, but emphasize the record of Spanish artifacts
found in the fill of the rooms excavated, because of the positive
chronological evidence that they provide. Obviously, any such
objects must have been deposited, at the earliest, after the Spanish
entrada of 1540, and they could not have occurred in any signif-
icant quantity prior to the beginning of permanent Spanish settle-
ment in 1630. They do, therefore, serve as useful calendrical dating
fossils for the strata in which they were found, subject to qualifi-
cations based on associations and special circumstances in any
given instance. Their particular significance will be considered in
relation to the discussions of each house group.
Pottery
Pottery of native manufacture constituted, of course, the bulk
of the cultural debris in the excavated areas. Except for the large
46 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
number of entire or restorable vessels recovered from burials and
fully discussed elsewhere (pp. 233-238), almost all ceramic mate-
rial from the pueblo was in the form of sherds discarded as refuse.
The sherds were segregated in terms of the excavational levels,
and each collection reflected in gross terms the character of the
fill between two successive floors in a particular room.
From these data it is possible, however, to ascertain which
pottery types were normally in association, which types were
never or rarely found together, and which types tended to exceed
others in relative quantity. Furthermore, it is always possible to
correlate the ceramic contents of a particular level with the pres-
ence or absence of Spanish objects, and in a great many instances
with the masonry of the surrounding walls, thus providing at least
a presumptive association of certain pottery types \vith either
Ancient or Recent building periods.
This three-way association serves as the basis, although ad-
mittedly a crude one, for establishing a gross chronology of ceramic
evolution. In the great trench that was dug across the plaza
between House Groups B and C, a more careful stratigraphic con-
trol was maintained, and precise quantitative records were kept
of the sherds of all pottery types recovered there. This trench is
fully described elsewhere (pp. 150-172) and its chronological evi-
dence analysed. In the following discussions of the several house
groups certain conclusions as to ceramic chronology will also be
presented. While individual variations and apparent contradictions
will appear, the overall results will be seen to conform pretty
closely to a consistent pattern, from which the history of ceramic
development at Hawikuh can be fairly clearly discerned.
Careful analytical studies were made of the field data on pot-
tery in all of the approximately 1 000 excavational levels, but the
details from only two of the house groups will be presented here,
namely Groups B and D. These will serve to demonstrate the
nature of the data and the method of its analysis. Specific com-
ments, where useful, will be made in reference to particular cases,
but it is sufficient to say here that the evidence provided by all
the groups was in general consistent.
Ceramic Nomenclature. Throughout this report we have fol-
lowed for the pottery the same taxonomic system that was used
by Hodge in his notes, and have retained his terminology. This
procedure leaves much to be desired because it is often difficult
now to determine exactly what he meant by some of the type
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 47
names employed with reference to sherd material, but, through a
careful study of the whole vessels recovered from burials and
illustrated herein, it has been possible to construct a fairly accurate
correlation between Hodge's field terminology and the type-va-
riety nomenclature that is in general acceptance to-day. This is
fully explained on pages 137-141 herein, and it has been felt that
minimal confusion will result if the original terms are preserved
in the text, thus permitting the reader to make his own inter-
pretation of them by reference to the table of correlations.
Ceramic Chronology. In broad terms, a relative chronology of
the major types recognized can be inferred from the entire mass
of ceramic data derived from all the room excavations, and this
may be formulated, very simply, as follows :
First : That the earliest types at Hawikuh were Glazes I and II.
Second: That Polychromes I, II, and III were almost but not
quite so early, and that all five types existed together for a con-
siderable period. From the data at hand it is impossible to say
which was the most numerous, but it is apparent that Polychrome
III was comparatively rare.
Third: That all black-on-white types had ceased to be in use
before the village of Hawikuh, as Hodge used the name, came into
existence. This statement must be explained by emphasizing the
fact that the expedition apparently concerned itself solely with
the village as it had existed during and just before the Spanish
period. Hodge's notes make clear the existence of earlier structures
beneath parts of the pueblo as well as beneath the Mission, but he
did not concern himself with them nor excavate them carefully.
In these early houses there were black-on- white and other con-
temporary pottery types, but they were not collected or recorded.
Whether these earlier remains were directly ancestral to Hawikuh
is academic in this context.
Fourth: That Late Polychrome came into existence sometime
before the Spanish entrada and, almost simultaneously, the Early
Polychromes and Ancient Glazes disappeared rather abruptly.
Fifth: That about the beginning of the Spanish period, or
perhaps a little before that time. Recent Glaze was introduced
and subsequently increased proportionally at the expense of Late
Polychrome. This tendency was maintained until the end.
Sixth: That Sikyatki imports were present in modest quan-
tities from almost the earliest horizon and increased in popularity
until the end.
48 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Seventh: That Gila Ware existed in modest quantities at the
lowest levels and disappeared at about the time of the disappear-
ance of Early Glaze.
The foregoing conclusions are tentative in the extreme and are
based on inexact data, but they do reflect fairly closely Hodge's
own impressions of the ceramic sequence as expressed in his notes
at the time of excavation. Furthermore, they are consistent with
the general situation in the various house groups, all of which
appear to have been occupied during approximately the same
period, and they agree surprisingly closely with the evidence from
the stratigraphic trench through the plaza, which is discussed on
pages 150-172. For purposes of presentation, the ceramic record
of House Group B will be set forth below in greater detail, because
it was the largest and most complex of the various groups, and
will serve as a standard for all (pp. 65-68; Figure 10). In the
discussions of other house groups, therefore, only unusual or
atypical features will be emphasized.
POSSIBLE RELATIONS BETWEEN ZUNI AND SOUTHERN ARIZONA
Repeatedly in his field notes, Hodge records the finding in
Ancient levels at Hawikuh of pottery that he calls ''Gila Ware,"
but nowhere in those notes does he describe it even summarily.
A question thus arises as to exactly what he meant by the term.
W^e believe that he referred to the types that are now called Gila,
Tonto, and Pinto Polychromes, and are embraced within the more
general category of Salado. This inference is borne out by the
typological identification of certain specimens in the Hawikuh
collection that were called "Gila Ware" in the notes (some of
which are illustrated herein in Figures 45, 46), and also by the
fact that in a short paper on Pottery of Hawikuh (Hodge, 1924 a,
p. 11) he describes "Gila Ware" as being "decorated in mat red,
white, and black," thus clearly identifying it as Salado.
This might close the question but for the recording of an oral
statement made by Hodge on April 7, 1949, at the home of Odd
Halseth at Pueblo Grande, in Phoenix, Arizona. Halseth took
advantage of the occasion to record on tape a conversation with
Hodge, in the course of which the latter discussed reminiscently
his excavations at Los Muertos and other sites. Among other
things, he said unequivocally that he had found "Hohokam pot-
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 49
tery in the lower levels of Hawikuh, lots of it." At the time of the
excavation of Hawikuh the word Hohokam was not in general
use among archaeologists and Hodge could not have used it in
his notes; but at present it is widely recognized and is usually
employed to refer to the early cultures of the southern Arizona
desert region and their distinctive red-on-buff pottery. When
Hodge used the term in 1949, however, it was then somewhat
equivocal, and was often used to include the Puebloid pottery
now generally termed Salado, but also sometimes then called Gila.
On the same occasion, however, Halseth used the words Pueblo,
Salado, and Hohokam in a context making it clear that he was
applying them to three distinct peoples, a factor pointing toward
the conclusion that Hodge also must have had the same distinc-
tions in mind.
We might thus be impelled to interpret Hodge's statement as
a reference to the occurrence of red-on-buff pottery at Hawikuh,
but for the fact that not a single example of that ware has been
found in the collection. It is possible, but hardly likely, that, if
any was excavated, it has all been lost. On the whole, it seems
more reasonable to suppose that what Hodge referred to was
really what is now called Salado.
The issue cannot be convincingly resolved, but it will be of
interest, nevertheless, to reproduce a part of the recording, not
only for its bearing on the pottery problem, but even more for the
light it sheds on various other matters on which Hodge expressed
relevant opinion. After a general introductory discussion of the
prehistory of the southern desert area, the conversation turned to
a consideration of the ancient irrigation systems, and Halseth
made the observation that he did not believe that all the canals
had been in use simultaneously. The talk continued as follows:
Hodge: Well, we don't know that their occupancy was
contemporaneous. We must look for the reason why those
great engineering projects were abandoned. You spoke about
the rising water table in recent times ; it might have occurred
also in ancient times. I think the theory is a very good one
and it is susceptible to substantiation.
Halseth: I'll stiU keep my mind open to a possible Salado
invasion, but there are so many factors that have to be
explained away to make that theory strong enough.
Hodge : Have you any theory in regard to the invaders ?
50 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Halseth: I don't see the possibility of an invasion, either
friendly or unfriendly. We find evidence of defensive measures
here. We have compound walls around all the granaries and
that would not constitute evidence of a friendly invasion.
But if those alleged invaders, whoever they were, took over
from the existing inhabitants they would certainly have had
a different set-up than if there was a contemporaneous and
friendly co-occupation by Pueblo, Salado, and Hohokam.
Hodge'. Uh-huh. If there were enemy invaders, they prob-
ably came in from over the border rather than from the North.
I do not believe the Apache and Navajo came into this
country until after the opening of the historic period. We
know very well where Coronado passed; he passed through
what later became almost the heart of the Apache country.
After crossing the Gila, his chronicler states that he entered
the despoblado, the unoccupied country, and it continued thus
until he got within shouting distance of Zuni.
Then the Spaniards established their camp at Hawikuh,
and Coronado sent out expeditions in different directions, two
of them to the northwest, one to the Hopi, or Tusayan as
he called it, for the purpose of seeing what kind of people
were over there; that was under Tovar. He came back and
reported that he had heard from the Indians that there was a
great gap in the earth; and so Coronado sent out Cardenas
to the discovery of the Grand Canyon. Now, they went right
over what later became the heart of the Navajo country. They
were out hunting for people as well as for wealth; they re-
ported on almost every individual they saw, but not a soul
did they meet between Zuni and the Hopi villages. Why ? I
don't think they were there. The first word we have of the
Apaches was from Coronado's expedition to the Plains, of the
vaqtieros, the buffalo hunters, who lived in tipis.
Of course theNavajos were Apaches at that time — Apaches
de Navaju. The Zufii name for enemy is Apachii, and it is
quite likely that Apache came about in that way. Of course,
the chief enemies of the Zufiis in later times were the Navajo —
before that they were the White Mountain Apache — they
were the ones that raided Hawikuh.
Halseth: To come back to legend: those who were here
in the early days and who were interested in the ethnograph-
ical lore of the country told me the same thing that I got
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 51
from old, old Pimas v/hen I first started out — that in the
memory of all of their fathers these Hohokam ruins looked
like they do now. And Font asked who had belonged to these
ancient ruins, and the Pimas told him: "We don't know
anything about that." Of course lately there has been a strong
tendency to build up the legend that the Pimas are the direct
descendants of the Hohokam. How about testing that theory
against legends that we hear from Hopi and Zufii? One of
the clans at Hopi say they came from the Land of the Big
Cactus.
Hodge'. Very true. Fewkes recorded it. Sometimes a legend
is really history. I made inquiry time and again with regard
to Sikyatki, first among the Hopi. The Sikyatki people came
late in prehistoric times from the Rio Grande country, and
according to the Hopi story they stopped at Zuni, lived there
for some time, then went on, joined the Hopi, and built the
pueblo of Sikyatki. The same is true for the Awatovi people,
but I am speaking particularly of Sikyatki now. Fewkes said
that the decendants of the Sikyatki people founded the Asa
Clan, that is, the Tansy Mustard Clan of Hopi today. I took
that matter up at Zuni and asked whether there were any
people who came from the Rio Grande country in the early
days and settled at Hawikuh, because we had Sikyatki-style
pottery there — it could have been dug up at Sikyatki and you
wouldn't know the difference. They said, "Yes." There was
a fine old traditionist there, old Pedro Pino, who said that
these people did come to Zuni and settled at Hawikuh. "Well,
how do you know ?" I asked. "They settled at Hawikuh!" He
was very insistent. And then their descendants, practically
extinct, formed the Ai'yaho'kwe (or Mustard) Clan of Zuni.
After living at Hawikuh for a long time, they went on and
joined the Hopi people. Now, there you have two legends, if
you wish to call them so, from two different tribes, that fit
perfectly, and you have the pottery to show for it.
Halseth : They also found that type of pottery down here.
Hodge : And we find Hohokam pottery in the lower levels
of Hawikuh, lots of it.
Haheth: There was a long period of friendly contact here.
And when these people left here, for whatever reason, it is
just as good a theory to me as any that they went up there
and joined those friendly farmers in the North.
52 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Hodge: Yes. You remember when Fray Marcos de Niza
got among the Piman tribes (they may have been Sobaipuri
or Pima proper) , he found a native of Cibola Hving there^ — ^he
had evidently been driven out from Zufii. They asked him
about those people, and he said his people lived at Hawikuh
and he described them, and said their village was of many
stories and they went to the top on ladders. There's a cir-
cumstantial account. And de Niza said, "How do you know
about all those things ?" And he said, "That was my country;
they were my people." And then the Pimas or Sobaipuris
told de Niza that they were in the habit of going up to Zufii
every year to help the people there with their crops. There's
a well-worn trail from the Pima country clear up to Hawikuh.
HOUSE GROUP A
The block of rooms designated House Group A was located
at the northerly extremity of the village and extended transversely
across the top of the ridge and a little way down its western slope.
Its alphabetical primacy does not indicate a correspondingly early
chronological position, and, in fact, it was probably built and
occupied later than were some of the other units of the pueblo.
As in the other units, there were here two building periods, evi-
denced by quite distinct masonry techniques, and it is possible
to distinguish the earlier and lower structure from the later and
upper, although it is not in most cases possible to determine with
assurance the exact sequence in which the individual rooms were
built, nor their contemporaneity of occupation. As already stated,
Hodge referred to the earlier and more substantial type of wall
construction as "Ancient" and to the later and inferior type as
"Recent," and we shall employ his terms.
The Architecture
The character of the masonry employed in the Ancient level
of Group A conformed exactly to that already described in detail
(pp. 15-18), but the probable sequence of construction may be
inferred from a careful study of the wall joints and abutments
(Figure 6). Clearly the north wall had been built first and was
almost continuous from its eastern to its western extremity. It was
broken at only one point, where the north-south wall between
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 53
Rooms 163 and 164 pierced it. Abutting against the back wall
and perpendicular to it v/ere short partition walls, about 10 to
12 feet apart, and extending southward, usually for a distance of
about 7 or 8 feet, equivalent to the width of a single room. In
two or three instances, these north-south walls turned at right
angles and were bonded with other short sections running parallel
with the back wall ; but usually the east-west sections stood inde-
pendently and without bonded corners.
It appears, then, that the original building had consisted of a
single row of rooms built against the common back wall, and that,
subsequently, other rooms had been added in front of the original
row extending the pueblo toward the south until it reached its
maximum width of three or four rooms. Hodge believed that
Rooms 164, 146, 147, 148 and 152 had all been built first as a
single unit. It is, of course, quite impossible to determine the
duration of the building period, but from the general homo-
geneity of the architecture and of the artifacts found in the fill,
it seems that the period was short, and that in all probabihty
the structure represents a coherent unit built according to a
preconceived plan.
This inference is strengthened by the presence of certain inter-
nal features, which militate against the inference of haphazard
construction. An examination of the plan (Figure 6) will show,
first, that all recorded doorways pierced the series of north-south
walls, whereas none existed through the east-west walls. Secondly,
there was not one fireplace in the rank of rooms against the long
back wall, whereas nearly all rooms in the central and front ranks
had fireplaces. Thirdly, there was a similar distribution of other
interior features such as benches and bins.
This situation strongly suggests that the central and front
rooms were the living and working quarters, that the back rooms
were used for storage, and perhaps for sleeping, and that each file
of three or four rooms in depth constituted a discrete dweUing
unit, separated completely from its adjoining files, and used per-
haps by a single family group. This hypothesis is reinforced by the
evidence from Pecos, where Kidder found comparable conditions
on the evidence of which he postulated a similar family-apartment
arrangment. At Pecos there was evidence of second- and third-
story rooms, which perhaps did not always exist at Hawikuh, but
this would only enlarge and not alter the pattern. (Kidder, 1958,
pp. 122-124; Fig. 33, a.)
54 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
If we are correct, then, in supposing that the Ancient portion
of Group A was all in use at the same time, there would have lived
there nine families with a total population of perhaps 45 or 50 people.
It is possible, though not certain, that at least some parts of
Group A in its Ancient period consisted of more than one story.
At the time of excavation the maximum depth of the lowermost
(and therefore the earliest) floors was about 12 feet below the
surface to which the surviving walls extended. This height is ample
for a two-story structure, but in every instance the upper portions
of the walls were of "Recent" masonry and therefore must have
been constructed during a building period later than and distinct
from the "Ancient" one.
Although the Recent walls had in almost every case been built
directly upon the Ancient walls and in the same alignment, the
joints and abutments did not always correspond between the two
levels, further indicating that there had been two building periods.
In most cases two and occasionally three floors were found in each
room, and usually the upper or later floor was at a level very
nearly at the point at which the character of the masonry changed,
although this was not uniformly the case ; sometimes parts of the
Ancient walls extended above the level of the upper floors. The
impression of the excavators was that there had been a short
period of abandonment during which the original roofs and upper
parts of the Ancient walls had collapsed, and that later these
ruined parts had been cleared away and rebuilt in the Recent
manner. This does not necessarily imply that the entire group had
been abandoned at any one time; the collapse and abandonment
may have been progressive, with some rooms abandoned while
others remained in use, the abandoned ones to be cleared, rebuilt
and reoccupied.
But, even if these assumptions are correct, we still cannot be
sure that the Ancient building ever rose to a height of more than
one story. It is not possible to tell whether the existing upper
floors were parts of the Ancient structure or whether they were
added later at the time of rebuilding. Even had there been clear
evidence that the upper floors had rested on beams rather than
directly on fill, it would not constitute proof that they had been
in existence during the original occupation of the lower apartments.
Such upper floors might represent merely the original roofs of
the Ancient apartments, which had later been converted to floors
when the walls were carried upward.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 55
But whether or not the Ancient building ever had more than
one story, it is very Hkely that some dwelHng units did have at
least two stories during the Recent period. This was made possible
by the reoccupation of lower Ancient rooms simultaneously with
those newly built directly above them. Where the vertical distance
between existing floors in superimposed rooms was less than about
5 feet, it is unlikely that both were in use at the same time. Such
a situation existed in Rooms 261, 271, 275, 282, 287, 291, 293,
296, 297, 298, and 305. But where the interval was 5 feet 8 inches
or more, simultaneous occupancy was possible; such rooms were
148, 152, 164, 235, 239, 241, 259, 268, 274 A, 274B, 279, and 292;
and at least three, namely 239, 259, and 268, were definitely
thought by Hodge to have been simultaneously occupied for an
unknown period, after which, he believed, the lower apartment
was disused and filled, while the upper was rebuilt and continued
in occupation. All other rooms had floor intervals of from 5 feet
I inch to 5 feet 7 inches, which seems too little for convenient
occupancy, though not impossibly so.
It will be noted that the rooms with possible simultaneous
occupancy lie mostly along the northerly two tiers, while those
whose lower level was too low to permit occupancy simultaneously
with the upper level lie mostly along the southerly tiers. A general
inference from this might be that the entire Ancient building was
constructed during an undetermined but short period of time; that,
somewhat later, upper stories were built above the northerly
rooms (in some cases the lower stories being filled and abandoned,
in some cases perhaps continuing in use) ; that, still later, other
upper stories were built over the southerly rooms, but only after
they had been abandoned and filled, their roof beams removed
and their original walls leveled to a point somewhat below their
original height. It is significant that no beams or beam holes
remained in the walls of those rooms in which the floor interval
was too small to permit simultaneous occupancy.
It is also significant that those rooms containing Spanish arti-
facts in the fill of the lower story were mostly within the northerly
tiers, and in general were the same rooms that might be supposed,
on other grounds, to have had occupancy simultaneously with the
upper rooms. The presence of Spanish artifacts in the lower fill
suggests that these areas were open up to a time after the coming
of the Spanish, whereas the others may have been closed before
such time.
56 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Fireplaces
Some 20 fireplaces were recorded in the lower floors and ten
in the upper. Except in a few instances that will be discussed,
these all conformed closely to the general standard in shape, size,
and position, and there was no significant or consistent difference
between those in the lower and the upper groups. In general all
were of the same character as others throughout the pueblo, rect-
angular, sub-floor, slab-lined, and usually in a central or nearly
central position.
There were three unusual fireplaces in the lower level. Two of
them were in the area designated as Room 287, which probably
had been an exterior cooking area rather than an enclosed room.
One fireplace there was ovoid in plan, its sides lined with ten
upended manos sloping slightly outward. The other was rectan-
gular and extended beneath the north wall (i.e., the south wall of
Room 271), having apparently been used before the wall was con-
structed.
In the southwest corner of Room 152 was an irregularly oct-
agonal fireplace, slab-lined, and slab-bottomed. It was the only
floor feature in the entire northerly rank of rooms and may have
originally been in an exterior area (Plate 5, b).
In room 275, in its upper floor, was a portion of a fireplace
unique at Hawikuh. It had been rectangular, though only two
side slabs remained, and in the bottom was a circular pit 6| inches
in diameter and 3 J inches deep, filled with ash. This fireplace
closely resembled several examples that were excavated in sites
of Pueblo III and Pueblo IV date by the Peabody Museum in the
area north of Quemado, New Mexico. (Sites U. G. 481, U. G. 494,
U. G. 616 of the Upper Gila Expedition, reported by C. Robert
McGimsey in 1957.)
Benches
As has been mentioned above, benches and bins of variable
character existed in many rooms in the central and front ranks of
Group A. There was no recognizable pattern either of shape, size,
or placement of these features, nor any consistent differences be-
tween the examples on the two levels. The benches were sometimes
faced with sandstone slabs, less often with rough masonry, and
were usually topped with hard adobe, though occasionally with
stone slabs.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 57
Bins ^
Storage bins were made both with slabs and boulders, usually
incorporated in or contiguous to a bench, but some slight differ-
ences occurred between the lower and upper floors. In the lower
floors no bins were located in the rear or central ranks of rooms,
but only in the third or front rank, and all were combined with
benches. In the upper floors, however, they existed in the central
as weU as in the third and front ranks, and three or four of them
were isolated from any bench. The only mealing bin in the entire
group was in the upper level of Room 235, slab-bottomed and
flanked by a floor area paved with slabs.
Floor Slabs
Floor slabs were infrequent, and existed in only one room in
the lower level. This was Room 239, in the rear rank, which was
otherwise undistinguished. In the upper level of Group A only a
few small floor areas were paved in Rooms 164, 235, and 282. For
the rest, the floors in both levels were unsurfaced.
Shelf (?)
Set horizontally into the west wall of the lower level of Room
274 B were four short sticks about i|- inches in diameter and about
I foot 3 inches above the floor. They spanned a horizontal distance
of 2 feet 6 inches and may have been supports for a shelf or rack.
Artifacts
The rooms in Group A, as elsewhere in the pueblo, were ex-
cavated in strata, whose vertical extent was determined by the
intervals between successive floor levels, and the recorded data
for ceramic and other artifacts were expressed only in general
terms, and with a minimum of description and discussion.
In full recognition, however, of the limitations of the data, we
still can say certain things about the probable chronology of the
rooms in House Group A. It appears certain that most of the rooms
in the Recent level were occupied during the Spanish period, as
evidenced by the fact that in only ten was no Spanish material
recorded. These were Rooms 148, 239, 241, 261, 268, 271, 292,
297, 298, and 305. In all others at least some items of glass, china,
58 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
iron, or copper were found. Spanish objects were less numerous
in the Ancient levels, but were still widely distributed, and were
recorded for i6 rooms: 147, 148, 152, 163, 235, 239, 241, 259, 268,
269, 271, 273, 274 B, 279, 292 A, and 293. Fourteen rooms had none,
but their distribution is such as to suggest that the presence or
absence of Spanish objects in particular rooms was fortuitous,
and that probably the entire Ancient level was occupied or at least
filled in during the Spanish times.
Pottery
The occurrence of native pottery was almost identical in both
levels of all rooms for which there were recorded data, and con-
sisted almost entirely of Late Polychrome and Recent Glaze. In
the Ancient levels, Late Polychrome occurred in every room except
Room 297, but it was absent in four rooms in the Recent levels,
namely 235, 269, 271 and 274 B. Recent Glaze, on the other hand,
was missing from 12 rooms at the Ancient level, namely 261, 264,
267, 268, 269, 271, 273, 274 A, 275, 282, 292 A, and 292 B, but was
present at the Recent levels in every room except 269.
This situation suggests that both Late Polychrome and Recent
Glaze were in use during Spanish times, but that the inception
of Late Polychrome may have preceded that of Recent Glaze.
The only other significant ceramic occurrences were of sherds of
"Sikyatki ware" in the lower levels of Rooms 239 and 264, and
of one "Gila ware water jar'' in the lower level of Room 274 A.
Hodge, in several cases, mentions what he calls ''the usual ancient
strays," which he does not further identify, apparently regarding
them as not significant. In the lower level of Room 259 was a "tall
black-and-white pitcher, intrusive, of course." We can only spec-
ulate on what this vessel actually was.
HOUSE GROUP B
House Group B was the largest and most complex of the
several components of the village, and contained about 40% of all
the rooms excavated. It was situated in the northeasterly part of
the village and extended in a solid beehivelike mass from the top
of the ridge down the eastern slope to a level about 20 feet below
the summit. The history of the Group as a whole probably spanned
the entire period of occupancy of Hawikuh, because many of the
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 59
upper rooms were clearly contemporary with the Spanish presence,
while the lowest level of Room 369 was regarded by Hodge as "one
of the oldest rooms at Hawikuh." More than 130 rooms were
excavated in Group B and, while many were not investigated to
their extreme depth, others extended to levels nearly 20 feet below
their present surfaces.
That all the rooms in such a gigantic and close-packed complex
could have been occupied simultaneously, even those that appear
from their features to have been contemporaneous, is hardly cred-
ible. The group must have grown outward and upward from some
point of origin, or perhaps from several such points, but it is not
nov/ possible to determine its history precisely. What we can say,
however, is that rooms with walls of Ancient masonry were clus-
tered in the central and southerly parts of the block, as indicated
on Figures 7, 8. Most of the rooms at the northern, eastern, and
western extremities were built entirely of Recent masonry and
were therefore of later construction, as were the upper levels of
all rooms.
The exact building sequence room by room is probably not
of great importance and, although a meticulous analysis of the
field notes might reveal it, we have made no special effort toward
that end. It has seemed that a more fruitful procedure would be
the investigation of the characteristic features of architecture and
artifacts from the earliest to the latest horizons, and we will
present our conclusions in this manner, often without reference to
specific rooms. Certain rooms that contain unique or unusual fea-
tures, or that are good examples of the general, will be individually
noted and discussed.
As with all rooms in the pueblo, those in Group B represent
two major periods of construction, characterized principally by
the differing styles of masonry that Hodge called "Ancient" and
"Recent," as explained above on pages 15-18 and illustrated in
Plates 4, a, c; 15, c; 16, c. It is quite unlikely, however, that there
was ever a period of total abandonmxcnt and subsequent reoccu-
pation. Doubtless, as time passed, some of the Ancient rooms were
abandoned, often as a result of accidental fire, and allowed to fill
up with debris, while new adjoining rooms were built. Later the
old rooms were perhaps cleaned out and refurbished, or they were
leveled off and new structures built on top of them.
That this was a gradual process is attested by several observed
facts. First, with relatively few exceptions, Recent walls were built
6o THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
directly upon and in alignment with Ancient ones. Major ex-
ceptions to this may be mentioned :
1. The upper walls of Room 407 were not constructed with
relation to those beneath it.
2. The group of later Rooms 400, 403, 404, 406, and 408 were
unrelated to those beneath them.
3. The group of later Rooms 316, 349, and 366 were unrelated
to those beneath them.
4. Below the later Rooms 392, 396, 410, 411, 412, and 420 were
Ancient walls unrelated to the later ones.
5. In the original Ancient building a long narrow corridor
(Room 344) had extended from the western plaza, apparently to
the open area at the southeast, passing between a row of eight
rooms on its northerly side and another row of six rooms on its
southerly side. The corridor was roofed, and later a series of Recent
rooms was built over and without structural relation to it. It will
be fully discussed on pages 69-71.
A few other instances of small divagations occurred, but they
need not be specifically mentioned.
Masonry
As already stated, the block of original and central rooms,
which we may consider as a coherent unit, was distinguished prin-
cipally by its masonry, which was uniformly of the Ancient type.
For purposes of a general understanding we shall consider its
major features in general terms, which can then be compared with
the comparable features of the later and upper structure. Before
proceeding, however, we must emphasize the significance of an
important factor that introduces into any attempt at statistical
comparison an element of considerable uncertainty. This is the
impossibility of ascertaining with assurance whether particular
features of any given room, such as floors, fireplaces, bins, benches,
roof beams, and the like, were actually contemporary with the
surrounding masonry, or whether they represent a reconditioning
operation that was perhaps carried out at a date later than that
at which the original walls were built and after a period of tem-
porary abandonment. In this situation some rule of thumb must
be applied, and we have followed the hypothesis that, in general,
those features associated with floors below the upper extremity
of walls of Ancient masonry were contemporary with those walls,
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 6 1
and that features on floors above this level were of Recent date.
Statistically, in terms of the approximately looo separate floors
exposed and described, the results are probably reliable, although
admittedly there must be a good many particular instances in which
they are incorrect.
Fireplaces
The Ancient rooms of Group B contained at least 6i fireplaces,
almost all of them conforming to the standard form of a rectangle,
set mostly below floor level, slab-sided, with a bottom either of
earth or stone, and situated usually at or near the center of the
room. Two pot-stones frequently were placed at one side. Typical
examples are shown in Plates ^, d; 8,b; g, b, d; i6, a, b, c. In the
mass they do not differ materially from those in Ancient rooms in
the other groups, nor from the norm of those in the upper or
Recent levels, a compilation of whose features is presented in
Figure 4 for House Group D. A brief discussion of the few instances
in which particular fireplaces in the Ancient floors differed from the
norm will demonstrate their overwhelming uniformity.
In Room 316 a fireplace of the usual form had been divided
into two compartments by a transverse slab and one compartment
filled with sand. A similar subdivision occurred in Room 341 in a
fireplace that was situated against the south wall — an infrequent
position.
The fireplace in the lowest floor of Room 370, about 9 feet
below the surface, was formed of six upright slabs set in an irregular
hexagon with a slab hearth. The sides sloped outward, and the
dimensions of the bottom, which was i foot 5 inches below the
surface, were about i foot 8 inches by i foot 6 inches, those of the
top 2 feet 3 inches by 2 feet i inch. These comparatively large
dimensions as well as the unusual shape set this fireplace apart
from any other in Group B. The five other polygonal fireplaces in
the entire pueblo were also at apparently very early levels, and
Room 370 is contiguous to Room 369, which Hodge believed "was
one of the oldest rooms at Hawikuh.''
In Room 387 the fireplace had been reduced 6 inches in length
by the insertion of a masonry plug.
In Room 328 a very small circular fireplace occurred, 9 inches
in diameter and only 2 inches deep.
In Room 398 the fireplace was made with upright slabs on
two sides and adobe plaster on the other two.
62 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
In Room 415 one fireplace was located in a corner of the room,
and its hearth was at floor level ; two slabs more than 7 inches high
were set against the walls, but the front slabs, if there had ever
been any, were missing, and the periphery of the hearth was
rounded. In all its features this fireplace closely resembled the
Spanish type as found in the friary, and despite its presence on
a floor more than 8 feet below the surface and in association with
Ancient walls, it suggests a post-Spanish date, although no Spanish
artifacts were found in the fill.
In the Recent floor of Room 420 was what Hodge called the
strangest fireplace in Hawikuh. Its plastered top was at
floor level and its walls of neat masonry 4" wide, thinly
plastered inside, were sunk in the floor to the depth of I's".
The contrivance was almost circular, the diameters being
i' 9" n-s and i' 9I" e-w. Its distance from the east waU was
2' 1" and from the north wall 2' o", measured to the inside.
At the bottom of a depression y^" below the top was a cir-
cular slab of sandstone, broken in two, its edges plastered
in place with adobe, and in its eastern edge a roughly semi-
circular hole, the circle being completed by breaking away
some of the masonry wall below. Beneath this stone, the
remainder of the cavity, to a depth of 5", was packed tightly
with pure charcoal. The fill beneath the structure, to a depth
of a foot, was half red earth and half earth and stones to the
second floor. When found, the east side of the fireplace had
been broken away to within 3" of its base, apparently by
those who dug a grave (Burial 1307) after the abandonment
and filling of the house.
In Room 426 the fireplace was exactly square, an extremely
rare shape.
At least 88 fireplaces were recorded on Recent floors in House
Group B, the vast majority conforming to standard characteristics.
In several rooms there were as many as three fireplaces on a single
floor, but whether or not all had been in use simultaneously was
not clear and may be doubted. Five were double, in that they
were composed of two pits separated by a transverse slab, or in
one case by a thin masonry partition. In some cases the pits v/ere
side-by-side, in others end-to-end. A triple fireplace existed in
Room 423. Nine fireplaces were situated against room walls, an
unusually large number; five were very near room corners, and
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 63
three were actually in corners. One free side of one of the latter
was made of adobe, 3-| inches thick, as was one end of another
example. The end of one fireplace was of masonry. Two or three
were among the smallest in the pueblo, one measuring only 5 J
inches by 6J inches.
Bins
Storage bins were surprisingly infrequent in the Ancient rooms
of Group B, and only nine instances were recorded, seven of these
being in direct association with benches. In Recent levels, 23 bins
were recorded, 13 being in association \vith benches.
The only unusual bins were an adjoining pair in a Recent level
of Room 368. Both were very large, and extended across the end
and part of one side of the room. Their walls were partly of heavy
masonry 7 to 9 inches thick, well-plastered and i foot 8 inches
high, and partly of slabs from i| to 4 inches thick, also heavily
plastered.
Miscellaneous Features
Shelf Supports ( ? ) . In two rooms, one Ancient (Room 371) and
one Recent (Room 423), sticks about ij inches in diameter had
been set into the waUs across a corner at an angle of 45 degrees
and about i foot out from the corner. That in Room 371 was 2
feet 7 inches above the floor. The other in Room 423 was 10 inches
above the floor.
Stick in Wall. In the Ancient north wall of Room 299 a stick
I J inches in diameter and 3 feet 6 inches long had been recessed
horizontally into the wall 4 feet 7 inches above the floor. Its
purpose w^as not evident.
Step. In the Recent level of Room 411, and in front of the door
leading into Room 410, was a step formed by a stone slab i foot
II inches by i foot, and 2 inches thick; it was supported upon
stones at a level 11 inches above the floor and 7 inches below the
door sill.
Ladder. Although ladders must have been in common use at
Hawikuh, the remains of only one were found, in the Recent level
of Room 381. It was formed of a heavy log of pinyon 5J to loj
inches in diameter and 2 feet 7 inches long. The stub ends of three
branches remained as foot supports.
64 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Snake Pens
On the authority of a statement by Fray Estevan de Perea
that the Indians of Cibola kept rattlesnakes in pens, Hodge be-
lieved that he had found several such structures at Hawikuh
(Plate 9, c). One set of these was in Room 392 in Group B, the
other in the great refuse dump on the western slope. Since they
have been fully reported elsewhere, they will not be further dis-
cussed here (Hodge, 1924 c).
Spanish Artifacts
Objects of Spanish manufacture made of glass, china, iron,
copper, etc., were recorded as widely distributed throughout Group
B. As to be expected, they were more prevalent in the Recent
levels, where they occurred in 99 rooms out of a total of 128, a
percentage of 77. But they were fairly frequent in the Ancient
levels, occurring in 34 rooms out of a total of 82, a percentage of
41. Only 39 excavated rooms had no Spanish artifacts and of these
24 were not excavated below the Recent level. Furthermore, the
rooms containing Spanish artifacts at both levels were scattered
without a clearly discernible pattern over nearly the entire area
of Group B, and it thus appears almost certain that not only was
the entire group occupied in its Recent levels during the Spanish
period, but also that at least a large portion of the occupation of
the Ancient structure extended into Spanish times or had been
abandoned so shortly before that many of the Ancient rooms, even
if abandoned, still stood open for an appreciable time after the
arrival of the Spanish and until a considerable quantity of Spanish
objects had accumulated in the debris with which they were finally
filled.
Native Artifacts
Since the field notes do not usually discuss the native artifacts
other than pottery, and since opportunity has been lacking for a
study of such objects at the Museum, little can be said about them
except where a specific note occurs in the field record.
Below the middle floor of Room 378 was found a "small red
bowl with recent glaze decoration on its exterior, covered with an
inverted handled bowl-like cup of Sikyatki ware, the bowl con-
taining a medicine bag of thin, tanned skin tied with a woven
string, in which were small lumps of sacred blue and green paint.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 65
Outside the bag were a few squash seeds, and beside the vessels
was a large obsidian pebble with slight artificial chipping."
In the second level of Room 415 there was found "a large
carved prayer-wand, probably belonging to the Priesthood of the
Bow, painted red and green. Lying on it was a jackrabbit leg-
bone."
Pottery
With respect to pottery, as elsewhere in the pueblo, the record
is meager and non-quantitative and generally limited to a bare
statement of the presence or absence of sherds of certain pottery
types in the several levels. Even from this tantalisingly inadequate
record, however, some useful inferences may be drawn. There
were in Group B 279 excavational levels from which pottery was
recorded, of which 145 were Recent and 134 Ancient. In 36 rooms
only one level (always the Recent one) was recorded, and in these
cases there was, of course, no stratigraphy. In nine rooms there
were two or more Recent levels (two in eight rooms, three in one)
which could provide a limited stratigraphic sequence. In 92 rooms
pottery from both Recent and Ancient levels was recorded, in most
cases from two levels, one from each horizon. But 27 rooms had
three levels each, nine rooms had four, four rooms had five, and
one room had six.
From this mass of data we shall first attempt to formulate
some general conclusions, and then discuss, in greater detail, the
ceramic situation in a selected number of the more distinctive
rooms. Considering first the Recent levels, it is at once noticeable
that the pottery assemblages in almost all rooms were remarkably
complacent. The dominant types in every case were Recent Glaze
and Late Polychrome, which usually occurred together but not
always in similar quantitative relationship. Although the field
notes never recorded exact numerical quantities of any of the
sherds recovered, they frequently did indicate whether one type
was more numerous than another. An analysis of these ratios
shows that in a total of 140 Recent levels containing one or both
of these two types the following relationships existed :
Recent Glaze about equal to Late Polychrome 42 levels
Recent Glaze present ; Late Polychrome absent 30 levels
Recent Glaze greater than Late Polychrome 30 levels
Late Polychrome greater than Recent Glaze 17 levels
Late Polychrome present; Recent Glaze absent 21 levels
66 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
In gross terms these ratios, crude though they are, do indicate
pretty conclusively that in the Recent levels the two types are of
about equal statistical weight, with Recent Glaze somewhat more
dominant than Late Polychrome. The third most frequently oc-
curring type in the Recent levels was what Hodge called "Sikyatki
Ware," a term that we are probably warranted in assuming in-
cluded the types now called Jeddito Black-on-yellow and Sikyatki
Polychrome. In 1949, as quoted on page 51 herein, Hodge
said that the yellow pottery found at Hawikuh was indistinguish-
able from that from Sikyatki. Perhaps also lumped in "Sikyatki
Ware" was an occasional sherd of San Bernardo type, for Hodge
refers in a few instances to the presence of "annular bases" on
some sherds. (At Awatovi the name San Bernardo was applied to
several types or varieties of pottery that resembled Jeddito Black-
on-yellow and Sikyatki Polychrome, but were later and less v/ell
made, often evidencing features indicative of Spanish influence,
such as annular bases, floral designs, and the like. These types will
be described in forthcoming publications in the Awatovi series
from the Peabody Museum, Harvard University.) Sikyatki sherds
were recorded in 46 Recent levels and their association was most
frequent in situations where the quantity of Recent Glaze ex-
ceeded or equaled that of Late Polychrome. There were 33 such
instances, but only 13 in which Sikyatki sherds were found in
levels dominated by Late Polychrome.
In three levels "Gila" sherds are reported, a designation that
apparently may refer either to Gila Polychrome or Pinto Poly-
chrome. And in five levels "plain redware" is mentioned, a term
that probably cannot now be identified. "Black-on-white" is
mentioned only once, in the form of a "duck-shaped" vessel, per-
haps preserved from earlier times because of its form. Early
Polychrome and Ancient Glaze occur only four times each, twice
in the two Recent levels of Room 420, which had, however, been
greatly disturbed by having had four burials intruded through
them, thus churning up the lower and earlier debris. There was no
observable difference between superimposed Recent levels.
In sum, then, it is clear that only Recent Glaze, Late Poly-
chrome, and Sikyatki types are statistically significant in Recent
levels, the first two about equally so, and the latter a very poor
third, although its presence probably does establish the fact of a
lively import trade from the Hopi country. It was markedly more
closely associated with Recent Glaze than with Late Polychrome.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 67
The ceramic contents of the Ancient levels present a much
more complex situation, in that a larger number of pottery types
was present and they varied more widely in their associations.
Altogether, 151 Ancient levels were recorded, the maximum num-
ber in any one room being four. In 49 rooms only one Ancient
level was excavated; 26 rooms had two each; 14 rooms had three
each; and two rooms had four each. Taken as a group the Ancient
levels were clearly distinguished from the Recent, but even in
many of them the most numerous types were also Recent Glaze
and Late Polychrome, which occurred in 54 instances to the ex-
clusion of all other types except Sikyatki. The latter occurred
fairly widely, but with much less frequency than in the Recent
levels. These 54 levels were thus indistinguishable from the Recent
levels, and it is noteworthy that 44 of them were the uppermost
of the Ancient levels and thus immediately below the Recent
levels. As has been said (pp. 60-61), it was often impossible to
determine conclusively whether a particular level was Recent or
Ancient, and it is quite likely that an indeterminate number that
have been called Ancient because of their association with Ancient
masonry were, in fact, occupied during the Recent period. If we
eliminate those levels of questionable date, only nine others among
the Ancient group were characterized by a pottery assemblage
exclusively of Recent Glaze, Late Polychrome, and Sikyatki.
Even the levels under discussion, however, showed an overall
pattern different from that of the Recent levels. Whereas in the
latter. Recent Glaze was the dominant type, in these Ancient
levels the quantity of Late Polychrome was equal to or greater
than that of Recent Glaze in 44 instances, while Recent Glaze
predominated over Late Polychrome in only ten. Even in these
relatively complacent levels, then, a stratigraphic distinction is
apparent.
It would appear most profitable to confine our attention to the
remaining levels that contained sherds of types not represented
at all (or so sparsely as to be insignificant) in any of the Recent
levels. Ancient Glaze (without distinction as to Glaze I or II)
occurs in 17 levels. Glaze I in 30 levels, and Glaze II in 32 levels.
In rooms of more than one Ancient level, both Glaze I and Glaze II
increase consistently in relative percentages toward the earlier
horizons.
Early Polychrome (without distinction as between Poly-
chromes I, II, and III) occurs in 38 instances, Polychrome I in
68 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
21 instances, Polychrome II in i6, and Polychrome III in eight.
From upper to lower levels all these categories of Polychromes
increase proportionally from the top to the third level, but fall
off at the fourth level, where there is only one recorded occurrence.
Gila or Pinto Polychromes occur 20 times, black-on-white only
twice.
The only other pottery found in the Ancient levels were a
"Red-painted corrugated jar, unique at Hawikuh," recorded in the
third Ancient level of Room 414, and a "small ancient bowl,
polished black inside and with a white geometric pattern on red
slip outside," taken from the only Ancient level of Room 178.
Glazes I and II occurred together in 22 instances, Glaze I
alone in ten, and Glaze II alone in 13.
Polychromes I and II occurred together in six instances, Poly-
chrome I alone in 15, and Polychrome II alone, never.
Ancient Glazes and Early Polychromes taken together occur-
red in the same levels in 51 instances, while the Glazes occurred
without Polychromes in only nine, and Polychromes without
Glazes in 11. While any stratigraphic or chronological inferences
drawn from such crude and gross data cannot be more than
tentative, they are pretty well supported by the details given in
Figure 10, and by the expanded analysis for all the house groups,
as set forth on pages 45-48 above.
The sequence of pottery types thus arrived at is supported by
Hodge's impressions in the field. In his notes on Rooms 350 and
366 in House Group B, he says that the sequence is "shown
perfectly" in each room. The situation in Room 366 was as follows,
from the uppermost floor (Floor i) downward :
Floor I (Recent) : Recent Glaze only
Floor 2 (Recent) : Late Polychrome and Sikyatki
Floor 3 (Recent) : Late Polychrome
Floor 4 (Ancient) : Early Polychrome, Gila ware, and Corru-
gated
Floor 5 (Ancient) : Early Polychrome, Glazes I and II, and
Corrugated
Although corrugated sherds are usually not even mentioned
in the field notes, an occasional remark suggests their frequency.
For example, in Room 384 in Group B reference is made to "the
ever-present cooking-pot fragments."
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 69
Particular Rooms
While it is neither possible nor remunerative to describe in
detail each room excavated, a few will be selected for study either
because they are of unusual interest or, on the other hand, because
they are typical of large numbers of others.
House Group B does not lend itself to a detailed interpretation
of its use and occupancy pattern, in the manner of House Groups
A and C (pp. 53-55 and 75-78). That sets of rooms in Group B
were, in fact, used from time to time as domestic units, discrete
from others, is an inevitable conclusion, but from the evidence
available we cannot recognize or segregate these sets. The entire
complex was subject constantly to renovation, reconstruction, and
expansion, and we cannot tell exactly which floors of which rooms
were in use simultaneously, or exactly when they were abandoned
and filled, or when some of them may have been reoccupied after
a period of abandonment. Nevertheless, a careful study of a few
characteristic rooms will provide a clear picture of the domestic
setting of the inhabitants.
Passageway {Room 344) . An interesting and unique feature was
discovered as part of the Ancient building near the southwest
corner of Group B. This was a long, narrow passageway that
extended from the plaza lying between Groups B and C through
the earliest rooms of Group B and probably into the open area at
the top of the eastern slope of the ridge. This passageway was
called Room 344 on the plan and extended under Rooms 329, 345,
387, 383, 381, 382, 427, and 443 (Figure 7). Older rooms had,
however, once existed on both sides of the passageway and at the
same level with it. The original easternmost extremity of the
passageway had been demolished when Room 329 was built ; but
it was intact from the western extremity of Room 345 to the point
below Room 443, where it had again been partly demolished by
the building of that later room. At the surviving western end the
passageway was 3 feet 9 inches wide, but it narrowed slightly to
3 feet I inch at a point beneath Room 382, and then gradually
widened again to 4 feet 9 inches below Room 443. The walls on
both sides for the entire length of almost 80 feet were of typically
Ancient masonry except in certain places where their uppermost
courses were Recent, perhaps representing later repairs. There
appear to have been two successive floor levels, at least toward the
western end, where the field notes refer to them as being i foot
70 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
9 inches apart. No mention is made of a secondary floor farther
east, however.
The passageway had been roofed by cross beams set apparently
at intervals of from i| to 3 feet, and from about 5 feet 2 inches
to 6 feet above the floor, except that where the secondary floor
was present the clearance was only 4 feet 7 inches. Only two door-
ways led from the passage into any of the flanking rooms. One,
through the south wall into Room 345, was i foot 9 inches wide
by 3 feet 4 inches high; its sill was 11 inches above the floor, and
it had been sealed with masonry. The lintel was of stone slabs, on
sticks. A secondary doorway led through the north wall into Room
353, I foot 2 inches wide by 2 feet 6 inches high, with a stone
lintel. It, too, had been sealed with masonry. Another opening at
the eastern end of the passageway penetrated a wall that termi-
nated the passageway at that point and that stood below the
later and superimposed wall between Rooms 427 and 443. This
door was originally i foot 8 inches wide by i foot 5 inches high,
but had later been made smaller by the insertion of slabs to form
jambs and thus became hardly more than a porthole.
The Recent rooms that had been built above the passageway
were functionally unrelated to it, and their walls were not aligned
with those of the passageway. The north-south walls of Rooms
345, 387, and 383, however, were supported on the cross beams
of the passageway roof, and thus it may have been that at least
the western part of the passageway had remained in use during
the occupancy of the rooms above it, as Hodge believed. Farther
east, however, this was not the case, because the fill on which were
built the upper rooms east of Room 383, rose well above the
roofline of the passageway, reaching a maximum thickness of
5 feet 10 inches between the upper extremities of the walls of the
passageway and the foundation of the dividing wall between
Rooms 382 and 427.
The purpose of the passageway was not clear, but Hodge was
so much intrigued by it that in August, 1928, 5 years after the
close of the final season in 1923, he did some further excavation
at its easterly end in an attempt to clarify its structure and pur-
pose, and the knowledge so derived modified somewhat his in-
ferences drawn at the time of the original, but incomplete, ex-
cavation. The discussion presented herein embodies the later and
more complete information. Hodge was doubtless impelled to
return to the problem not only because of the puzzling nature of
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 7I
the passageway, but also because he had found an almost identical
and unresolved situation at Heshotauthla when he excavated
there for the Hemenway Expedition in 1889 (Fewkes, 1909, p. 50).
Room 314. This unusually large room was, in Hodge's words,
"one of the most interesting in Hawikuh," and deserves more than
cursory notice. The description that follov/s will also serve as an
example of the meticulous manner in which the data for every one
of the 370 excavated rooms were recorded.
This room was located in the extreme western part of the
building, where it overlooked the plaza to the west, and was in
the second tier of rooms north of the passageway just described
and contemporary with it. In its earliest period it had consisted
of two apartments separated by a wall that extended east-west
along the shorter axis, and this period must have included at least
one major renovation, because the five fireplaces that graced the
lowest floor level had later been plastered over and obscured.
Three of these fireplaces were in the southerly apartment, but can
hardly all have been in use at the same time. As will be seen in the
plan (Figure ii), they adjoined each other at the corners, and were
built in the usual rectangular form, with vertical slab sides ex-
tending only slightly above the floor. The northerly fireplace had
a slab hearth, the others earth. In the northerly apartment were
two similar fireplaces; one, in the center of the floor, measured
I foot I inch by 10 inches and was 6 inches deep with a slab
hearth. The other was almost against the partition wall and mea-
sured I foot 7 inches by i foot ; its depth was not recorded, but it,
too, had a slab hearth. No other features distinguished this level,
but a child had been buried beneath the floor of the southerly
apartment (Burial No. 1267).
Sherds consisted of Early Glaze, Early Polychrome, and Gila
ware with "a few intrusive black-on- white." Two iron implements
were found, "much to our surprise."
At a level i foot 8 inches above the earliest floor another floor
had been laid. The partition was torn down to this level and the
new floor extended across it. This floor was hard and smooth and
rounded at the edges where it joined the walls. Along the north
side a row of five thin stone slabs were set in the floor and against
the wall; six similar slabs were set against the south wall, and
five along the east wall, all partly plastered over. They ranged in
height from i foot 4 inches to 2 feet 11 inches. One fireplace
appeared near the center of the room. It measured i foot 10 inches
72 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
by 9 inches and was 7 inches deep with an earthen hearth. The
sides were of slabs set flush with the floor; and two pot-stones
were embedded in the floor at the west side. Near the fireplace
was a rounded work-stone embedded in the floor. Along the entire
west side of the room was an elaborate bench (Plate 9, b), con-
structed as follows: Commencing at the south wall the structure
was I foot 6 inches wide and i foot 8| inches high for a length of
5 feet 4 inches, faced with masonry, filled with earth, and plastered ;
thence, for a length of 7 feet 5 inches, it averaged 2 feet 6 inches
wide and 12 inches high, excepting at its extreme south end, where
for 5 inches it was i foot 5 inches wide. Rising from the north end
of this portion and projecting from the room wall i foot 6 inches
was a mud wall i foot 2| inches wide and 10 inches high, with
rounded edges. Thence, for a distance of 5 feet, 3 inches, to the
north wall of the room the bench extended i foot 2| inches wide
by 9I inches high. At each outer corner of the wide central part
of the bench, which here was faced with plastered slabs, were the
decayed remains of a post, the northerly one of which, 5|- inches
in diameter, was plastered to the bench at the base, and probably
the other, 3 inches in diameter, had been similarly treated.
The third and uppermost floor was i foot 6 inches above the
second floor and at the time of excavation lay about 6 feet below
the surface. The lower courses of masonry were Ancient, but, as
was true in many cases, they had been carried upward with Recent
masonry, suggesting that the room had been abandoned for a time
after the period of occupation of the second floor, during which
the roof and upper courses of the walls had collapsed, and that it
had then been reconstructed with its new floor somewhat below
the surviving tops of the Ancient walls.
The walls were heavily plastered with many coats to a thickness
of 3 inches. The floor was paved with slabs (Plate 16, a), included
in which were a baking-stone, a metate, and a mano. Some of the
wall slabs from the earlier room protruded a few inches through
the new floor.
An unusually long fireplace, approximately parallel with the
long axis of the room, was placed almost exactly in the center of
the floor. It measured i foot 11 inches by 7 J inches at one end
and 9J inches at the other, was 6J inches deep, with an earth
hearth. The slabs on three sides stood vertically and flush with
the floor, but the fourth side was made of a pile of slabs 4^ inches
wide and laid on their faces. Two pot-stones were at the west side.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 73
A bench, built after the thick wall plaster had accumulated,
extended entirely along the west wall (Plate i6, a). At the north
end it was i foot 5 inches wide and 10 inches high for a length of
5 feet 7 inches, then i foot io|- inches wide and 11 inches high for
2 feet 4 inches of its length and faced with a single slab on edge ;
the remainder averaged i foot 4 inches high and i foot 2 inches
wide. The structure consisted of thin, crude retaining walls and
slabs, the resultant boxlike compartments being filled with earth,
stones, and refuse, mingled with which were an excellent paint
mortar of stone, a metate, and a sherd of Early Glaze. The top
of the bench was plastered. The west wall, overlooking the plaza,
was provided with the unusual number of five tiny windows.
A niche was in the west wall 4 feet i inch from the south wall
and 4 inches above the bench, 6 inches wide, 5 inches high, 6 inches
deep. This niche, which had no lintel, almost joined one of the
lower corners of one window. Although it cannot be said with
assurance, there are some characteristics of the uppermost level
of Room 314 that suggest the possibility of its use as a kiva.
Room 366. Another room of considerable interest was situated
a little north of the geographical center of the group and had been
built upon what Hodge called "the earliest Hawikuh refuse," but
this characterization does not indicate the presence there of pre-
Hawikuh occupation, for the sherds found below the bottom floor
were all of Early Polychrome, Glaze I, and Glaze II. No floor
features were found at the lowest Ancient level, but at some time
during its occupation a secondary wall was built about i| to 2 feet
from the west wall and the space behind it was filled with earth.
At a level of 5 feet 8 inches above the lowest floor was another
floor that had apparently been built during the Recent period,
for the walls above this point were of Recent masonry. A bench
extended completely across the east end of the room, i foot i inch
high by i foot 2 inches wide. The bench turned the northeast
corner and extended a distance of 2 feet 10 inches along the north
wall, at the same height and width as its other member. The entire
face was of masonry, plastered over.
Three fireplaces appeared in the floor, all rectangular and slab-
lined. One was exactly in the center, the long axis east and west,
I foot 8 inches long by 8 inches wide, 5 inches deep, with a slab
hearth. Two pot-stones stood at its north side. A second fireplace
was in the southwest quarter of the room, i foot 8 inches long by
10 inches wide, 3 inches deep, with an earth floor. Its long axis
74 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
was north-south and there were no pot-stones. The third fireplace
was abnormally small, and was in the northwest quarter of the
room. Its dimensions were only 6J inches by 5| inches, and its
depth was 2 inches, with an earthen hearth.
A door had been in use at the time of occupancy of this floor,
located in the south wall, i foot 3 inches wide, by 2 feet 5 inches
high, its sill 3 inches above the floor level. This door extended above
the two subsequent floors but had been sealed with masonry before
they were built.
A renovation of this second floor had been made i foot 5 inches
to I foot 8 inches higher, obscuring the fireplaces and the bench.
A new fireplace was then constructed near the northwest corner,
its long axis east-west. It was i foot 6 inches long by 10 inches
\^dde, 5 inches deep with a stone hearth. There were no pot-stones.
The final floor was built still later and only 6 inches higher.
Its surface was neatly rounded upward to meet the plaster of the
walls. A new fireplace was built in the southwest quarter of the
room, almost exactly over the one two floors below. It was i foot
4 inches long north-south by 9 inches east-west, and was 5 inches
deep with a slab hearth. Two pot-stones stood at its west side.
A rectangular work-stone was set into the floor near the northeast
corner of the room. A sealed doorway pierced the middle of the
east wall into Room 335, i foot 6 inches wide, by i foot 7 inches
high, its sill 8| inches above the floor level.
Just below the uppermost floor six beam holes appeared in
the east wall containing fragments of decayed wood. They had
been completely plastered over and may originally have accom-
modated the secondary beams of the roof contemporary with the
lowest floor, which was about 7 feet below them. If this was so,
then the lowest level must have been occupied during Recent times,
because, although the masonry from the lowest floor to the second
floor was Ancient, that above the second floor and containing the
beam sockets was Recent.
HOUSE GROUP C
House Group C was a block of approximately 62 rooms ex-
tending irregularly along the western slope of the ridge (Figures 12,
13) . Most of the northern and central rooms of the group exhibited
both Ancient and Recent masonry, but eight rooms at the south-
erly extremity were Recent only. Despite the number of rooms
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 75
that showed Ancient masonry, nearly all that were excavated
must have been occupied in Recent times, since in only five in-
stances were early pottery types mentioned, namely in Rooms 203
(Glaze II), 213 (Ancient Glaze and Early Polychrome), 219 (An-
cient Glaze), 220 (Early Polychrome), and 294 ("Ancient Wares").
But since these were among the deepest rooms, and since a good
many others were not excavated to bed rock, it may be presumed
that a more complete examination of the lowest levels would have
discovered a more widespread representation of early pottery
types.
Occupational Pattern
Although the arrangement of Group C is more irregular than
that of Group A, the two groups resemble each other in at least
one significant feature, namely the manner in which the rooms
seem to have been occupied and used. A study of the plan of the
entire group and an analysis of the wall abutments give the
impression that Group C may be the amalgamation of what were
once four separate smaller units, as follows :
Unit I — The most northerly rooms including Rooms 220, 224,
310, and all those north of them.
Unit 2 — The rooms next southerly from Unit i, extending to
and including Rooms 213, 244, and 254.
Unit 3 — ^The rooms next south of Unit 2, extending to and in-
cluding Rooms 204, 217, and 336.
Unit 4 — All other rooms south of Unit 3.
Of course, each of these units may itself have been originally
built up of even smaller components but it is not feasible now to
attempt an analysis of them. While it is impossible to determine
conclusively the sequence in which the four major units were built,
it seems likely that Unit 2 was the oldest, with Units i, 3, and 4
following in that order. This inference is based on a consideration
of several factors :
1. The walls separating the units appear to be generally con-
tinuous, their joints less frequently broken and their lines more
direct than those of most other walls.
2. For the most part, the rooms in Unit 2 have 3 or 4 floor
levels and are deeper than the rooms in the other units, thus sug-
gesting a greater age. This statement must be taken, however,
as only a very general one, because several rooms in Unit i also
have three floors and are as deep as some of the rooms in Unit 2,
76 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
namely Rooms 220, 253, 219, 224, and 308, all of which have three
floors, and three of which are of maximum depth. All are at the
southerly extremity of Unit i, and contiguous to Unit 2. It may
be that they should be included in Unit 2, but, if so, this is a
matter of minor significance. Room 309 in Unit i had three floors,
but all of them were Recent and the total depth was minimal.
Room 191 in Unit 3 also had three floors, but was not unusually
deep, and the two lower floors were only 4 inches apart.
3. Spanish artifacts occur in only two of the Ancient levels in
Unit 2, whereas they are more frequent in Ancient levels in Units i
and 3.
4. Many of the rooms in Unit i are fairly deep, especially in
the southerly part of the Unit, adjoining Unit 2, whereas all rooms
in Unit 3 are of only median depth.
5. All rooms in Unit 4 are shallow and all walls are of Recent
masonry. Only Room 205 had more than one floor and its two
floors were only 9 inches apart.
6. As will be discussed later (pages 80-81), the ceramic re-
mains found in the fill of the rooms of the entire group were too
nearly homogeneous to provide a relative chronology for the four
units.
Within the units, however, the pattern of domestic occupation
seems to resemble very closely that of Group A. As in that case,
each individual domestic establishment or household seems usually
to have been composed of a "single file" of rooms, one in front of
another, either three or four in depth, and inaccessible from the
adjoining households on either side. This inference is drawn from
the fact that nearly all interior wall openings in both Ancient and
Recent levels were constructed between rooms within a file and
not between rooms in adjoining files. Of nine doors recorded in
Ancient levels, eight were so placed, and one was exterior, leading
into the plaza. Of 25 doors in Recent levels, 19 were so placed,
three were exterior, and only three communicated between ad-
joining files of rooms.
Even these apparent exceptions can perhaps be explained. The
door between Rooms 224 and 288 connects two files that may have
been used as a single block, since all interconnect. The door be-
tween Rooms 310 and 319 joins the two rooms immediately in front
of those just referred to. Thus, the entire complex of seven rooms,
(258, 220, 226, 224, 288, 310, and 319) may once have sheltered a
single, large family group.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 77
The other apparent exception, between Rooms 244 and 245
may perhaps be similarly interpreted, the entire interconnecting
complex of five rooms (213, 214, 244, 245, and 254) once possibly
composing a single household.
The placement of windows or portholes presents a similar
pattern, although in Ancient levels two opened between files, while
only one was within a file, and two were exterior. In Recent levels
four were within files, none were between files, and 15 were exterior.
Regarding the tier of 20 rooms along the western side of the
group as "back" rooms, it is notable that in only one of them
(Room 213) was there a fireplace in an Ancient level and in only
six in Recent levels. None had benches, and only two had storage
bins, both of them in Recent levels, and in association with fire-
places (Rooms 200 and 214).
In the 19 rooms of the second tier, five contained fireplaces
in Ancient levels and five in Recent. Only two Ancient rooms in
this tier had benches (201 and 288), and only in Room 288 was
the bench associated with a fireplace. Only one storage bin oc-
curred in these Ancient rooms (Room 245, where there was no
fireplace) .
In the 16 rooms of the third tier, six had fireplaces in Ancient
levels and ten in Recent levels. Benches occurred in six rooms,
and bins in one in Ancient levels, while eight rooms contained
benches and six contained bins in Recent levels. All benches in
Ancient levels were associated with fireplaces. In Recent levels
all benches were associated with fireplaces except in one case
(Room 306) , as were all bins except one (Room 247) .
In the five rooms of the fourth or front tier, two contained
fireplaces in their Ancient levels (although two of these rooms
were not fully excavated), and only one in its Recent level. No
benches or bins were recorded in Ancient levels. Two benches and
two bins occurred in Recent levels.
While a precise statistical analysis of these associations would
not be particularly helpful, it is provocative to note that, as shown
in Figure 5, in general, the highest concentration of fireplaces,
benches, and bins occurred at both Ancient and Recent levels in
rooms of the third and fourth tiers, and is almost as high in the
second tier. By far the lowest incidence is in the first or back tier,
usually with complete absence. Fourth tier rooms are too few to
provide data for reliable generalization, and they have been com-
bined for this purpose mth those of the third tier.
78 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
From these considerations, then, it seems a reasonable con-
chision that family groups probably occupied single files of rooms
(or occasionally two adjoining files) composed of from three to
seven rooms each; that the back rooms were used normally for
storage or sleeping, although, sometimes in the Recent period, they
may have served other purposes as well; that most of the living,
cooking, eating, and working took place in rooms of the second
and especially of the third and fourth tiers. This is consistent with
the situation in House Group A (pp. 53-54), and at Pecos
(Kidder, 1958, pp. 122-124; Fig. 33, a).
Assuming that all rooms of House Group C were simultane-
ously occupied, at least for a part of its history, the maximum
number of residents might have been about 80.
Fireplaces
The 43 fireplaces in Group C conformed generally to those
found in other parts of the village. Only one differed significantly
from the standard. In Room 331, at the Ancient level, the fireplace
was elliptical, about 10 inches by 12 inches, 2| inches deep, with
an earth bottom. It was not slab-lined. There was a double pit
in the Recent level of Room 284.
Miscellaneous Features
Peg in Wall. In the south wall of Room 302 a wooden peg had
been inserted 5 feet 2 inches above the floor and 3 feet 4 inches
from the southwest corner.
Stick in Wall. Embedded horizontally in the east wall of
Room 308 and 4 feet 5 inches above the floor was a stick 2 inches
in diameter and 3 feet 11 inches long. It had been covered by the
wall plaster.
Slabs. Against the east wall of Room 226 was a row of seven
heavy stones averaging i foot high and from 4 to 7 inches wide.
Their purpose was not apparent.
Diagonally across the northwest corner of Room 288 a rhom-
boidal slab of sandstone leaned from the floor against the north
and west walls, luted in place with adobe mortar and having a
thin coating of the same material over its face. Its length was
3 feet 3 J inches at the base, i foot 10 inches at the top, and it was
2 feet 3 inches high. It had once been covered with another slab,
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 79
which had been removed. Neither Hodge nor his Zuni workmen
could offer an explanation.
Posts in Walls. In the center of the east wall of Room 308 a
vertical post 3 J inches in diameter had been recessed into the
masonry, its face flattened and made flush with the wall surface
(Plate 6, c). Plaster covered it. Hodge remarks that ''similar posts
were found in other rooms."
Spanish Artifacts
No detailed description of Spanish artifacts was made in the
field notes, but their presence or absence in the fill of each level
was noted. Such objects were found in 36 of the 60 Recent levels
and in 12 of the 36 Ancient levels, indicating a much greater ratio
during the late period, but showing also that many, if not all,
of the earlier rooms had been occupied or at least filled during
Spanish times. Among the Ancient levels containing Spanish ob-
jects there seemed to be no concentration in any particular area,
and they were scattered all about the entire group.
Native Artifacts
While no record was made in the field notes of the more
common types of stone, bone, and wood artifacts, a few unusual
pieces were discussed therein. The most interesting was found in
the Ancient level of Room 212, 9 feet below the surface. It was
described as follows: 'The most important object found in this
room, and unique among collections from the Pueblo region, was
a life-size human image, the head of terra cotta, the body of clay
plastered on a manikin of neatly wrapped and tied grass or straw.
This image, identified by the Zuni as that of Chdkwin-mosona-okya,
or House Priestess, lay with blackened fragments of others, on
its back on the burnt lower floor, almost against the south wall
and headed eastward. A single fragment was found in the ad-
joining Room 203." This figurine is illustrated in a short note
published by Hodge (1942, pp. 220-221).
In a compartment formed by a thin masonry wall across the
Recent level of Room 233, and i foot 10 inches from the west wall,
was found "a fine water-jar, of recent ware, painted in green glaze
and mat red on an orange slip, over the opening of which had been
placed a thin slab that effectually kept out all refuse. In this jar
8o THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
were two etowe.'' The jar (10/1519 in the Museum catalogue) is of
Hawikuh Polychrome and its contents are described as follows:
One palladium (etowe) was opened up and found to be
composed of fibre wrapping in which were a reed containing
earth and a turquois bead ; 2 reeds containing earth and small
pebbles ; 3 painted prayer sticks ; 4 painted sticks wrapped on
one end; one painted stick with dot of black paint on end;
5 branches of a pine tree; and a small rock crystal ball.
Another palladium (etowe) consisted of prayer sticks and
reeds in fibre wrapping.
Room 233 contained no other distinctive features whatever.
Pottery
In all 60 Recent levels Recent Glaze and Late Polychrome
provided the bulk of the sherds, with Sikyatki present in 19.
Plain red sherds were recorded twice, and what was called "pre-
Hawikuh Black-on-white" only once. The ratio of Recent Glaze
to Late Polychrome can be expressed as follows in the Recent
levels :
Recent Glaze equal to Late Polychrome 21 levels
Recent Glaze greater than Late Polychrome 13 levels
Recent Glaze absent. Late Polychrome present 6 levels
Late Polychrome greater than Recent Glaze 7 levels
Late Polychrome absent, Recent Glaze present 8 levels
Both absent 5 levels
In the 36 Ancient levels recorded the ratios are as follows:
Recent Glaze equal to Late Polychrome 5 levels
Recent Glaze greater than Late Polychrome 3 levels
Recent Glaze absent. Late Polychrome present 15 levels
Late Polychrome greater than Recent Glaze 8 levels
Late Polychrome absent, Recent Glaze present 3 levels
Both absent 2 levels
Although these statistics are not in themselves very con-
clusive, they are, at least, consistent with those in the other house
groups in indicating that Late Polychrome came into use prior
to Recent Glaze, and that the latter increased proportionally with
time, becoming dominant toward the end. In the earlier levels
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 8 1
Late Polychrome is predominant, being greater than or equal to
Recent Glaze in 28 instances, whereas Recent Glaze outranks Late
Polychrome in only six instances. In later levels, by contrast,
Recent Glaze is equal to or greater than Late Polychrome in 42
instances, whereas Late Polychrome is dominant in only 13 in-
stances.
Particular Rooms
Most of the rooms in Group C were not in any significant way
unusual or important, although a few of them deserve special
comment.
The most interesting of these was Room 117 in Unit 4 near the
south end of the group. It had been a very long room, with outer
walls of thin masonry considerably better than the average in
Recent buildings. It was 29 feet 11 inches long by 7 feet 3 inches
wide at its northerly end and 6 feet 6 inches wide at its southerly
end. It had been partitioned into three compartments by thin
walls of plastered wattlework, the only such examples at Hawikuh
(Plate 10, a). The compartments from south to north measured
II feet 6 inches, 11 feet 7 inches, and 6 feet 3 inches long re-
spectively.
The partitions varied in thickness from ij to 2|- inches, and
each was composed of seven shm upright poles set about i foot
apart. Horizontal wooden rods had been laid across the uprights,
but only three remained in position. They must once have been
tied to the uprights, but no evidence of the lashings had survived.
The whole framework was covered with a thin coating of adobe
plaster.
A slab fireplace of the usual character was placed at about the
center of the middle room, and another was near the center of the
south room, its shape slightly trapezoidal. It was 7 inches deep,
with a stone hearth; two pot-stones were beside it.
In the southeast corner of the middle room and the northeast
corner of the south room were two rectangular storage bins made
of slabs about 9 to 10 inches high.
The only door led through the east wall of the middle room,
but it had been sealed. A smaU porthole 2 feet 8 inches above the
floor was near the southeast corner of the south room. Access
must have been had through the roof after the sealing of the
doorway; whether doorways had existed through the wattle par-
titions could not be determined.
82 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Immediately outside and to the east of Room 117 was a semi-
enclosed area, bounded on the south and north by the walls of
other rooms, but open toward the east. It had once been roofed,
as evidenced by the remains of a row of six posts set into the hard
sandy floor about 7 feet from the wall of Room 117. The floor of
this ramada area had had two levels of occupation, respectively
7 inches and 17 inches higher than the floor of Room 117. It is
difficult to see how the higher level could have been in use while
Room 117 was still occupied, although the sill of the sealed door
was at the level of this outer floor.
In the lower level, near the south end, were two small slab
fireplaces "evidently the work of children," and in the higher
level, just south of the center, was a larger fireplace 9 inches
square, 5 inches deep, with a sand hearth.
HOUSE GROUP D
House Group D was a solidly built block of more than 60
rooms, of which 49 were wholly or partially excavated. It was
situated on the southerly part of the ridge, east of Group C and
south of Group B, and extended a little distance down the easterly
slope (Figures 14, 15, and 16).
Group D was probably the most significant section of the
entire viUage for the evidence afforded of chronological sequence
and change. It was the only house group in which there was a clear
separation between the Ancient and Recent levels and which,
therefore, appeared to represent two distinct periods of occupation
separated by a period of abandonment. This conclusion is reached
on the basis of several factors that will be more fully discussed
later, but which can be briefly stated here :
1. There was a clear discontinuity in most places between the
lower walls of Ancient masonry and the upper ones of Recent
style. In general, the upper walls were not aligned directly
upon the earlier, as was usually the case in other parts of the
village.
2. There was almost a complete correspondence between the
character of the artifacts found in the fill of the various rooms and
that of the walls. There are 95 instances in which these characters
are explicitly recorded, and in all but 11 there is a clear association
of early pottery with Ancient walls and of late pottery with Recent
walls.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 83
3. A careful analysis of Group D can thus be depended upon
to document whatever significant difference, if any, distinguished
the material culture and architecture of the two periods. It is
possible, although not certain, that the lowest levels in Group D
represent the earliest occupation in the entire site. They were very
deep (up to nearly 20 feet), and contained large components of
the earliest pottery. Certainly these rooms were older than any
in Groups A, B, and F, although they may have been approxi-
mately contemporary with those of Group E and of Unit 2 in
Group C, or with the early rooms down the slope westward of
Group C, which were not fully excavated or adequately recorded.
In general configuration, Group D resembled Group B, as a
roughly "hivelike" mass of rooms, and differed from Groups A
and C, which were elongated and relatively narrow. Partly for
this reason, it is impossible to infer a domestic or household pat-
tern from either the juxtaposition of rooms or the internal features
within them. The presence or absence of fireplaces, benches, and
bins, and the placement of doorways appears haphazard and does
not provide a convincing clue. We shall therefore abandon the
search for an answer to this question and proceed to a consideration
of the specific architectural features of the structure.
Fireplaces
Because of the separation between Ancient and Recent levels
in Group D, a very careful and detailed analysis of the 56 fire-
places (30 Recent, 26 Ancient) was made in order to ascertain
what features, if any, might distinguish one level from the other.
The results of this analysis are presented in Figure 4, which is fully
explained by its caption. It will be seen that the two categories
are in general remarkably complacent, although there are a few
characteristics that may be of some small statistical significance :
1. Length: The range is greater in the Ancient period, though
the mean is about the same.
2. Width: The range is about the same though the mean is
smaller in the Recent period. Taken together, length and width indi-
cate a slightly closer approach to the square in the Ancient period.
3. Depth: Range and mean are about the same in both periods.
4. Hearths : Slab hearths show a strong preponderance in the
Ancient period {ca. 66%), but are in a minority in the Recent
(ca. 28%).
84 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
5. Pot-stones: Not common in either period, but more than
twice as many in the Ancient.
6. Fire screens: Only in the Recent period.
7. Position: More frequently at the center of the floor in the
Recent period; more frequently against a wall in the Ancient,
although the majority in both periods were between the center
and a wall.
8. Orientation: Diagonal placement or one in which the long
dimension of the fireplace was parallel with the short dimension
of the room was most frequent in the Ancient period {ca. 52%);
but a placement in which the long dimension of the fireplace was
parallel with the longer dimension of the room was predominant
in the Recent period (ca. 90%).
9. Shapes other than rectangular: Only five fireplaces were of
odd shapes. Two were circular and clay-lined and one was hex-
agonal, all in Ancient levels, consistent with the few similar ex-
amples in other house groups ; one pentagonal and one trapezoidal
example were in Recent levels.
Benches and Bins
Benches were relatively few in Group D, and only 13 were
found, all built of masonry, six in Recent and seven in Ancient
levels. All but two were in association with fireplaces. They varied
greatly in shape, size, and position, and stood from 7 inches to
I foot 9 inches high, except for an unusual example in the Ancient
level of Room 422 B, which was 3 feet 3 inches high.
A total of 13 bins were found in eight Recent and two Ancient
levels; eight were of masonry, five of slabs, and one of a com-
bination of both materials. All but one were in association with
fireplaces, but only two w^ere in association with benches. They
varied greatly in size and shape and all but one were in room
corners. The bin in the Recent level of Room 434 was triangular,
formed by a diagonal masonry wall across one corner.
Wooden Rod
In Room 144, in the Recent level, a long wooden rod extended
horizontally from a socket 4 feet 3 inches high in the north wall,
parallel to and 11 inches from the west wall. It had perhaps once
extended entirely across the room, a distance of 7 feet 8 inches.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 85
Spanish Artifacts
Spanish objects were found fairly widely in the fill of Group D,
but perhaps less numerously than in the other groups. As else-
where, the field notes record the presence of such objects, but
usually do not describe them. They occurred in Recent levels of
20 rooms, mostly near the northeastern, northwestern, and south-
western extremities of the group, but not at all in the southeastern
portion. The only Spanish objects of interest, which were described
in detail from Recent levels, were near the surface in Room 149 :
"Many small pieces of mica, some of them cut to shape, were
found in a heap just below the surface. It is not improbable that
these were part of a supply used in ornamenting the steps of the
main altar of the church."
Spanish objects occurred in Ancient levels in only four rooms,
all close together in the southwestern area (Rooms 155, 161, 169,
and 437). The Ancient level in Room 155, however, was apparently
in use at the same time as its upper Recent level, as evidenced by
the condition of the beams supporting the Recent floor, and Hodge
noted: "Although the walls of this level were older in construction
than those above, the contents of the room plainly indicated post-
Spanish occupancy."
The second level of Room 161 (which contained one iron nail)
did have Ancient masonry, but Hodge believed that it had been
reoccupied during the Recent period.
In the Ancient level of Room 169 were found a single sherd
of Recent Glaze and a piece of iron, but Hodge noted that "the
conditions were such that these two articles are probably not so
significant as might appear, as the falling of the north wall of
Room 197 released much refuse from the upper level of the ad-
joining unexcavated room."
Iron and Spanish crockery were found in the bottom Ancient
level of Room 437, 12 feet below the surface. But the crockery
was part of a single vessel the other parts of which were found in
the upper (Recent) level of Room 438, at least 65 feet distant.
Clearly then, these late objects must somehow have been intruded
into the depths of Room 437 in some unexplained way, and its
apparent stratigraphy is therefore misleading.
It is thus likely that even the small evidence for the presence
of Spanish artifacts contemporaneously with the occupation of
the Ancient levels in Group D is meretricious, and we may be
86 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
virtually certain that the entire Ancient portion of the group had
been abandoned and filled before the Spanish advent, even though
a few of the older rooms may later have been reused during the
Spanish period.
Native Artifacts
As was the case in most rooms of the village, little is said in
the field notes concerning native artifacts beyond the record of
their presence. In Room 154, however, Hodge provided a long
inventory of the items found in the Ancient level, which had been
burned, charring the artifacts but not consuming them. He listed
them "as an indication of the possessions of a Hawikuh house-
hold," as follows:
wooden awl
pendant of turtleshell
24 bone awls
deer scapula, notched
about 125 olivella shell beads
bone spatula
3 large, well-finished, leaf-shape blades
another blade in the rough
18 arrow- and spear-points or knives and drills
many flint chips and cores
5 toy ladles of pottery
9 toy jars and bowls
15 to 20 pieces of toy vessels
bird effigy of earthenware
bunch of fiber, and various cords, knots, etc.
grass of the kind used as rafter covering
a piece of wood, 9" by 2!'
large flake of selenite
grooved maul
2 metates
3 manos
bone ring
2 kicking sticks ( ? )
22 bone beads
3 split bone tubes, ground smooth along edges
whistle or bird-call of bone
9 shaped potsherds (game counters ?)
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 87
4 drill or spindle whorls of pottery
wooden whorl
4 baskets of varying weaves and several fragments of others
matting used as jar cover
woven yucca head-rest
20 wooden feathers or petals, perforated with 2 or with 4 holes
2 twisted and wrapped pottery-rests
several pottery-polishing stones
mortar and pestle of stone
one large and one small baking-stone
curved drumstick
fiat stone, grooved across the face
3 large smoothing stones
Pottery
More clearly than in any other group the pottery in the fill of
Group D corresponded chronologically with that of the masonry
and with the presence or absence of Spanish objects. Occurrences
of Ancient Glaze, Early Polychrome, and Corrugated appear in
only six Recent levels. Recent Glaze occurred in only three Ancient
levels, and every one of these occurrences is probably explainable :
Room 154 was thought by Hodge to have been reoccupied in
Recent times; Room 169 contained some material from a higher
level of an adjoining room due to the collapse of a wall; Room 429
contained "almost every type" and had been "probably filled
from a refuse heap in late times."
Late Polychrome occurred fairly frequently both in Ancient
and Recent levels, as did Sikyatki types.
The pattern, then, is one of Recent Glaze completely limited to
Recent levels ; Ancient Glaze, Early Polychrome, and Corrugated
limited almost completely to Ancient levels ; Late Polychrome and
Sikyatki distributed fairly widely in both; and Spanish objects
only in Recent. (The four occurrences of Spanish objects in Ancient
levels have been explained probably as illusory on pages 85-86).
The conclusions indicate a relative chronology that can be stated
generally as follows :
I. Ancient Glaze is the earliest type present, with Early Poly-
chrome coming into use perhaps slightly later, both types termi-
nating with the end of the period characterized by the presence of
Ancient masonry. During this period Sikyatki types were fairly
88 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
common imports, as were Gila types. This entire period was pre-
Spanish, that is, certainly before 1630, and possibly before 1540.
2. Recent Glaze was first made near the beginning of the
Recent period, which could have begun not later than 1630 and
perhaps even before 1540. Late Polychrome, which was already
in use, continued throughout the Recent period, as did the Si-
kyatki types, but Ancient Glaze, Early Polychrome, Corrugated,
and Gila types disappeared. Spanish objects were plentiful.
All this is quite consistent with the situation in other house
groups.
HOUSE GROUP E
House Group E stood at the extreme point of the ridge and
extended well down the fairly steep southerly slope, the lowest
rooms almost 20 feet below the highest. It contained at least fifty
rooms arranged in an irregular block, the longer dimension of
which extended almost 150 feet, the shorter about 60 feet (Figures
17, 18). Apparently the expedition began its excavation of the
village at the southerly end of this group, and for many of the
rooms the notes are meager, and the observations seem to have
been made with less care than was the case subsequently. More-
over, many of the rooms were excavated only to the uppermost
floor, leaving much of the Ancient structure uninvestigated.
It appears, however, that an Ancient building had existed here,
probably covering nearly the entire area, and at least some of
it had been abandoned and filled during pre- Spanish times.
Examples are Rooms 120, 114, 121, 160 and 125, the Ancient levels
of which contained only early pottery and no Spanish objects
(except a piece of china in Room 120, which Hodge ascribed to
that revered archaeological deus ex machina, "a marauding prairie
dog"). In other parts of the group, however, the Ancient rooms
seem to have been filled after the Spanish entrada, (for example
Rooms 127, 135, 185, and 190, where Spanish objects and some-
times late pottery, such as Recent Glaze, occurred).
That there was a period of non-occupancy after abandonment
of the Ancient levels and the construction of the Recent ones,
at least in some parts of the area, is apparent from the non-
alignment of walls at the two levels, (for example in the area of
Rooms 103, 124, and 125, and in that of Rooms 132, 187, and 190,
where the upper walls were built on fill without relation to the
lower). Probably other similar cases would have been exposed with
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 89
more complete excavation. On the other hand, in many places the
upper walls were merely continuations of the lower, suggesting
that there had been no complete break in occupancy of the entire
group. In a few rooms, especially along the extreme northerly
tier. Recent masonry was entirely lacking, but the rooms gave
evidence of having been occupied during Recent times. The ar-
rangement of rooms and the placement of doors, windows, and
floor features gave no convincing clue to the domestic or household
pattern at either Ancient or Recent levels, such as was seen in
Groups A and C, but Hodge did make the following observation
with respect to the Recent level of Room 121 :
Judging by the wall-openings (i.e. the 4 windows in E wall
into R-123, and the doors in N. S. W. walls into Rooms 160,
115, and 114, respectively), this room was probably occupied
by the family which inhabited the surrounding rooms 106,
114, 115, 123, 160, and possibly also 102, 103, and 165.
If he is correct, this would have been an unusually large house-
hold, perhaps sheltering an extended family group. There may
also be added Hodge's observation that the area of Room 123 had
originally been an exterior patio later enclosed by the construction
of an east wall (which may not even then have enclosed the area
completely), and, presumably, a roof. The four windows in the
east wall of Room 121 had originally opened to the exterior of the
building.
An abnormally large number of rooms had no floor features
whatever, and those that had were, on the whole, less copiously
supplied than was usual in other groups. In short, this group
contained little that was distinctive and the data derived from
it add little to the knowledge obtained from the other sections
of the site. It is essentially confirmatory of the conclusions already
adumbrated.
The upper floor of Room 132 was covered with sheep manure,
"indicating that the house had been used as a fold after the final
abandonment of the pueblo."
Fireplaces
There were 18 fireplaces in the Recent levels and eight in the
Ancient. Nearly all of them conformed to the general style, being
rectangular, slab-lined, with either earth or stone hearths. No
significant differences were observable between those of the two
90 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
periods. Pot-stones were found beside seven fireplaces in Recent
levels, and three in Ancient. Two fireplaces were double, one in
each period. In the Ancient level of Room 120, beneath the Recent
east wall, was a circular fireplace, whose dimensions were not
recorded. Positions of fireplaces in the floors varied, though most
were at or near the center, with sides parallel to the walls of the
room, but three in Recent levels were near (but not in) corners,
one of them being diagonal. Six were near a wall, three in each
period, one of those in Ancient levels being diagonal. One, in the
Recent level of Room 126, was actually against a wall.
Partitions
Across Room 114, on its only (Recent) floor, near the center,
ran a masonry partition, 8 to 10 inches high, built above and
partly across a fireplace. A similar partition, 4 feet 2 inches high,
was built across the Ancient level of Room 121.
Benches and Bins
Benches were few in Group E, and occurred on only five floors,
three Recent and two Ancient. All were of masonry; four were
rectangular and located in room corners. In Room 103, however,
at the Recent level, a narrow bench faced partly with stone ma-
sonry and partly with adobe extended continuously along the
south and west sides of the room. It was about i foot 5 inches high
and not more than i foot wide, and was associated with a mealing
bin and a fireplace. There were seven masonry and two slab bins
in Recent levels, and two of masonry in Ancient levels. Most were
long and narrow, varying in depth from 10 inches to i foot 4
inches, but two in the Recent levels of Rooms iii and 187 were
almost square. The former was in a corner and was made partly
of masonry with one slab side ; the other was against the center of
a wall and was built entirely of slabs. Adjoining it was another
bin, long and narrow and made of adobe bricks. The bin in the
Ancient level of Room 132 had been partly covered with a roof
supported on four sticks 10 inches above the floor.
In seven cases, all Recent, the bins were in rooms with fire-
places, and two of these rooms also contained benches. Only one
bin and one bench, both in Ancient levels, stood alone; and in
two cases, one Ancient and one Recent, benches were associated
with fireplaces, but without bins.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 9I
Poles
In the north and south walls of Room lo, very close to the
wall corners, and 4 feet above the floor, were round sockets con-
taining decayed wood, probably the remnants of a pole, "used for
hanging clothing and other belongings." A similar pole had ex-
tended north-south across Room 184, 4 feet 7 inches above the
floor, and very close to the east wall.
Cists
Bins, of specialized construction that Hodge called cists, were
found in two rooms in House Group E.
In the Ancient level of Room 135, the east wall had bulged
inward and a supporting wall had been built against part of it.
Through this wall had been placed such a cist, its face flush with
the face of the new wall and extending back 11 inches to the face
of the original wall. It was described by Hodge as follows:
The front of the cist consisted of a slab set on edge,
measuring 3' 7" long, i' 4" high, and ij'' thick, plastered on
its exposed or western face continuously with the plaster on
the supporting wall, which bounded the cist on the north. The
inside length (north-south) of the cist was 10" and its height,
was i' 4". Within, on the sand that almost filled the compart-
ment, was a quantity of small shapeless sticks, and a fragment
of a baking-stone. The top of the cist was covered closely with
a single slab. At the base of the upright facing slab was a
stick (one end of which was embedded in the south wall)
lying parallel with the slab and evidently designed for its
support. The cist no doubt had been built against the original
east wall of the room before the supporting wall was erected.
Another cist was found in a corner of the Recent level of Room
103. A wall of adobe bricks 2 feet high had been built diagonally
across the corner, leaving an elongated triangular space behind it
6 feet 6 inches long by only 10 inches wide at the base. The bricks
were only slightly smaller than those used in the church and
friary, and Hodge felt that they almost certainly had been taken
from the Spanish buildings. He described the cist as follows :
The narrow triangular space between the adobe wall and
the original north wall of the room was roofed with sticks.
92 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
I J" to 2" in diameter, laid lengthwise, covered with reed grass
(showe) and mud plaster, and the whole burned, but there was
no other evidence that the room had been affected by fire. The
original north wall of the room rose 2' 7" above the wall of
adobe that faced it. In the triangular enclosure were found
the following objects, mingled throughout with wood- ashes:
A drill-balance or spindle-whorl made from a potsherd
Skull of a turkey
Fragments of decayed wood
Pestle-shape metal (bronze?) object, possibly originally
the clapper of a large bell
Knife made from a deer rib
Fragments of vessels of Sikyatki ware
Obsidian flake
Numerous mammal bones
Pieces of burned food
Fragments of glass and of china
A very smooth rubbing stone, such as is used for polishing
baking stones
Piece of shikwum-kwimine, a medicine.
Spanish Artifacts
Items of Spanish or Mexican origin were recorded in 27 rooms,
at 24 Recent and only eight Ancient levels, and among the latter
several were not of chronological significance. For example, a
piece of china in Room 118 was ascribed by Hodge to his helpful
prairie dog, and some rooms were thought to have been fiUed
with refuse during the Spanish period, though previously aban-
doned. The statistical significance, therefore, of the few Spanish
artifacts is meager, and the inference is well supported that the
Ancient levels in the entire group were not occupied after the
Spanish entrada.
In the Recent level of Room 105 was found a "small white
stone cross that, although doubtless of native manufacture, bore
the remains of coating with mica, which can hardly be considered
a native conception."
Another intrusive object in the fill of Room 105 was described
as follows: "But the strangest of all was the finding in the refuse
of a white china pitcher, the lip of which had been broken and
then ground. On the bottom was stamped 'Warranted Goodwin
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 93
Bros.' The pitcher had been filled with fat or tallow, which oozed
through the cracks in the glaze when exposed to the sun and which
still retained considerable odor."
Native Artifacts
As was usual, the field notes contain only meager references
to native artifacts and no attempt will be made here to discuss
them comprehensively. A few specific remarks may be useful,
however :
In the Ancient level of Room 125 were found a "remarkable
number of non-ceramic artifacts,'' including bone, antler, shell,
stone, and "what appeared to have been a wooden bow, and the
greatly decayed remains of a thin board, of the size and shape of
a typical Zuni baby-carrier." This room had no floor features
whatever.
Thick layers of charred corn lay on three Recent and two
Ancient floors. In one case (Room 167) the incredible statement is
made that this deposit was almost 5 feet 8 inches deep.
Masses of "yellowish material, which the Indians identified as
wheat," were recorded in Recent levels of Rooms 109 and no.
Neither room had floor or wall features, and both were doubtless
storage rooms. If the deposit was truly wheat they must have been
filled in post-Spanish times, although Room no was said to con-
tain sherds "all of prehistoric ware."
The upper floors of Rooms 132 and 187 were covered with
sheep manure.
Pottery
There is a fairly clear differentiation in the ceramic associations
between Ancient and Recent levels, which is consistent with the
distribution of Spanish objects. In the 41 Recent levels. Recent
Glaze occurred in 32 (or 78%), and Late Polychrome in 27 (or
66%), nearly always in association with Recent Glaze. Early Poly-
chrome occurred only twice, Ancient Glaze three times, and Cor-
rugated twice, although a general reference to "prehistoric" sherds
was made for Rooms no and 11 1.
According to Hodge's notes :
An anomalous condition was shown in Room 118 by the
finding of a surprisingly large proportion of sherds of Ancient
pottery. Glaze I and II, and Early Polychrome, together with
94 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Late Polychrome, with only a few sherds of Recent Glaze.
From this association it may be assumed in the light of con-
trary conditions in so many rooms, that the lower story of
this house had been filled within the historic period with
refuse taken from a dump that contained both ancient and
recent debris, such as might readily have been encountered
at the base of the nearby western slope at the time this and
adjacent houses were built. Test-holes dug, especially along
the eastern slope of the pueblo, revealed such conditions —
refuse of more recent origin at the surface, and without any
intrusive objects whatsoever at the bottom. Haphazard dig-
ging in such debris for the purpose of procuring material for
filling would, of course, result in gathering refuse representing
all periods, and such evidently was the case with Room Ii8.
In another interesting note Hodge recorded :
Practically every room of Hawikuh contained a greater
or lesser number of sherds of various kinds of ancient vessels
(including black and gray, which was never made at this
pueblo), and Room 103 was no exception; but the presence of
these in moderate numbers, when associated with pottery of
more recent origin, is not significant, as they might easily
have found their way into the mud plaster or the fill of floors,
roofs, and walls, or have been picked up and saved for grinding
to temper potter's clay, as is still done at Zuiii. During the
excavations many bushels of discarded sherds were taken
from Hawikuh by native women for this purpose, but frag-
ments of the coarser cooking-pots were always rejected by
them.
This was in contrast to the situation in the Ancient levels,
where Recent Glaze occurred only four times (or 15%) and Late
Polychrome 13 times (or 50%). Early Polychrome occurred nine
times (or 35%) and Ancient Glaze 11 times (or 43%). Sikyatki
occurred seven times in Recent levels and six in Ancient. Not a
single sherd of Gila type was recorded in either level.
The general pattern is consistent with that in other parts of
the site : Early Polychrome and Ancient Glaze had gone out of use
before the Spanish arrival; Late Polychrome was well developed
by that date, and it increased in popularity afterward; Recent
Glaze had its inception during the Spanish period or just prior to
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 95
it, and tended subsequently to exceed Late Polychrome in quan-
tity; Sikyatki types were imported both before and during the
Spanish period.
In the Ancient level of Room 185 was found "the greater part
of a human-effigy vessel decorated in polychrome and glaze."
HOUSE GROUP F
House Group F was situated in the valley near the base of
the eastern slope of the ridge, and not more than 50 feet northwest
of the church (Figure 19). In fact some rooms that probably had
belonged to the group underlay parts of the mission complex.
These were Rooms M32, M33 (also designated 272), M35, and
perhaps others. Although 32 rooms were excavated wholly or in
part, probably many more were not investigated, and the entire
operation was hurriedly carried out and inadequately recorded.
Many rooms with lower levels of Ancient masonry were cleared
only to their upper or Recent floors, and among the 12 exposed
floor levels within Ancient walls, the fill of only three contained
early ceramic remains: Polychrome II in Rooms 229 and 242,
Early Polychrome and Glaze II in Room 263. All the other 38
floor levels, both Ancient and Recent, contained only Late Poly-
chrome, Recent Glaze and Sikyatki types, with Late Polychrome
equal to or greater than Recent Glaze in 29 out of the 33 levels,
in which these tjrpes occurred. Spanish objects occur ed in 12
Recent and in six Ancient floor levels. No Gila, Black-on-white or
Corrugated sherds were recorded.
The conclusion seems warranted that while many of the lower
levels of the group may have been built before the Spanish arrival,
the occupation of those portions of it that were excavated, whether
with Ancient or Recent masonry, must have occurred during
Spanish times and perhaps not for a very long period. There was
little that was distinctive in this group, and in general its features
are closely similar to those found elsewhere.
Fireplaces
There were 25 fireplaces in Group F, four in Ancient and 21
in Recent levels. They conformed generally to the usual rect-
angular, slab-lined pattern. Three were square, a shape unusual
at Hawikuh, all relatively small. Nearly all were near the center
96 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
of the room or not far from it, and only two were placed against
a wall. None was in or near a corner, and all were oriented with
sides parallel to the room walls, usually in the direction of the
long dimension. In Room 248 at the Recent level, three fireplaces
were contiguous and some adobe had been used in their construc-
tion (Plate 15, d). Pot-stones appeared beside only two fireplaces,
in each case utilizing manos for the purpose.
Step(?)
Beneath a wdndow connecting the Recent levels of Rooms 231
and 232, a flat slab 2 feet 4 inches above the floor that served as
its sill, extended i foot 7 inches into one room and the two slabs
that formed the jambs extended outward 9 inches (Plate 7, h).
The purpose of this structure was not evident. Hodge thought it
resembled a "roof drain," but such a function would have been
impossible. Was it, perhaps, a step ?
Wall Pegs
In each corner of the Ancient level of Room 248, 4 feet 4 inches
above the floor, a short wooden rod had been inserted diagonally,
"evidently for the purpose of hanging household belongings."
These had been set in place after the walls were built, for their
only support was the thick plaster. The rod in the southwest corner
had been made more secure by the aid of a plaited fiber string
tamped into the plaster. A peg projected from the north wall,
3 feet \ inch from the west wall, in line with the corner rods. There
was a similar peg in the west wall 2 feet 5 J inches from the north
wall, and there had been another in the west wall, but it had been
removed before the fire. This was one of the most elaborate rooms
in the group, with numerous bins and benches and a fireplace.
Spanish Artifacts
Objects of Spanish or Mexican origin were fairly numerous
throughout Group F and occurred in 12 Recent and six Ancient
levels. As usual, however, they were not described and are not
further discussed here. They almost always occurred with sherds
of Recent Glaze.
THE NATIVE VILLAGE 97
Native Artifacts
For the most part non-ceramic objects were not described in
the field notes and thus are not discussed here. They seem to have
included only a few manos, mauls, hammerstones, metates, bone
awls, and bone beads.
Pottery
By far the dominant pottery types in Group F were Recent
Glaze and Late Polychrome. These occurred together in i8 Recent
levels (64% of all Recent levels) and in four Ancient levels (33%
of all Ancient levels). Late Polychrome was equal to or more
abundant than Recent Glaze in 21 Recent and in eight Ancient
levels, whereas Recent Glaze was more abundant in only six
Recent levels, and none at all in Ancient. Sikyatki sherds occurred
in II Recent and three Ancient levels. Early Polychrome and
Ancient Glaze occurred in four Ancient levels and not at all in
Recent. No Gila or Black-on-white sherds were recorded. It thus
appears that the ceramic associations in Group F were consistent
with those elsewhere. The Ancient levels were probably less old
than those in other groups, especially Groups B and D, and prob-
ably most of them were occupied during at least the early part
of the Spanish period. The Recent levels were certainly post-
Spanish, but very likely were abandoned a little before the final
abandonment of the village, as suggested by the fact that their
occupation did not persist into the period of heavy domination by
Recent Glaze.
CHAPTER II
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY OF
LA PURISIMA CONCEPCION DE HAWIKUH
HISTORIAL REVIEW
AMONG the significant architectural remains of Hawikuh are
those of the missionary estabhshment founded in 1629 by
Spanish Franciscans, under the name of La Purisima
Concepcion de Hawikuh. The remains of the structures comprising
this estabhshment were thoroughly excavated by the Hawikuh
expedition, and the results thereof will be discussed here in detail.
Before turning, however, to the evidence of archaeology, it will be
helpful to review briefly the historical record as it pertains to the
Spanish missionary effort among the Zufii villages during the 17th
century.
A full and authoritative account of this period has been pub-
lished in Hodge's classic book, History of Hawikuh (1937 a, pp.
73-107), and it will therefore be sufficient here to present merely
a brief summary of pertinent events. Unless otherwise indicated,
the following account is taken from this source, and specific page
references are omitted.
Although there had been occasional Spanish contacts with the
Zuiii area following Coronado's conquest of 1540, no attempt at
religious conversion was made there for many years, and, in fact,
no comprehensive Spanish effort toward the permanent occupation
of New Mexico was initiated until, in 1596, a commission was
issued to Don Juan de Ofiate for the conquest and colonization of
the province. Ofiate reached the Rio Grande pueblos in the autumn
of 1598 with about 400 men, including several Franciscan friars;
and on September 9, 1598, an aUocation was made, assigning
certain friars for duty at specified pueblos of the province. Tzuni
was included among those given to Padre Fray Andres Corchado,
although there is no evidence that he ever actually visited Zuni,
Ofiate, himself, however, did go there, and arrived at a village,
which he referred to as Cibola or Granada, on November 2, 1598.
98
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY 99
This was Hawikuh, and Ofiate reported that he was well received.
He remained only a few days, when he continued his march to
Tusayan, as the Hopi country was then known. Meanwhile, how-
ever, he had promulgated an act of Ohediencia y vasallaje . . . del
Provincia de Zuni, which established Spanish authority there.
Apparently nothing further was accomplished at that time or
for some years thereafter. In 1609 the Crown assumed the govern-
ment of New Mexico, and Don Pedro de Peralta was appointed
Governor, but even then no missionary effort was attempted at
Zuni, or in any of the other western pueblos.
In 1616-17 the Custodia de la Conversion de San Pablo del
Nuevo Mexico was created as the agency for the conversion of the
indigenes of New Mexico, as a part of the great Franciscan Pro-
vincia del Santo Evangelio de Mexico (Montgomery, Smith, and
Brew, 1949, pp. 1 17-120), and in 1628, when Fray Estevan de Perea
was for the second time appointed custodian, the missionizing
movement toward the West was begun. Fray Estevan reached
Santa Fe at Eastertide in 1629, and almost at once initiated action
toward the founding of missions at Acoma, Zufii, and Hopi. He
left Santa Fe with Governor Francisco Manuel de Silva Nieto on
June 23 of that year and reached Zuni three or four days later.
At Hawikuh he "bought" a house, which "was the first church of
that province, where the next day was celebrated the first Mass"
(Perea, 1933).
Perea soon set out for the Hopi villages, leaving behind him
three soldiers and three friars: Fray Roque de Figueredo, Fray
Agustm de Cuellar, and Fray Francisco de la Madre de Dios, who
"doubtless began to build the permanent church at Hawikuh"
later in the same year (Hodge, 1937 a, p. 96). During this period
the Devil was at work, however, and incited the Indians to a show
of hostility toward the missionaries. Fray Roque was equal to the
emergency, and mollified the dissidents, later baptising the caci-
ques, that is, the religious dignitaries, on the feast of San Agustin,
August 28, 1629. (For a discussion of the word cacique see Smith
and Roberts, 1954, p. 22, and note 76.) He apparently remained at
Hawikuh at least until February, 1632. At some unrecorded date
he was joined there by Fray Francisco Let r ado, and Fray Agustin
de Cuellar went to Halona, across the river from modern Zuni,
where a visita seems to have been established.
Evidently the church at Hawikuh was completed within two
or three years, but Fray Roque's earlier pacification of the Indians
100 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
was not permanent. On February 22, 1632, they rose in revolt,
killed Fray Francisco and burned the church, afterwards taking
refuge from expected retaliation on Towayalane, or Corn Moun-
tain, the great and almost inaccessible mesa situated to the north-
east of Hawikuh. There they remained until 1635 or 1636.
It is not clear when the church at Hawikuh was rehabilitated
nor to exactly what extent. It may not have been until after 1642,
and perhaps even then not to its original state, for in 1663 it had
no resident priest, but was served by the priest from Halona, which
was then the only fully staffed mission at Zufii, with visitas being
maintained at Kechipawan and Matsaki.
In 1672 Apaches sacked Hawikuh, burned the church, and
killed Fray Pedro de Avila y Ayala, whose body was buried at
Halona. Although Bandelier believed that La Purisima Concep-
cion was not re-established after 1672 and that Hawikuh dwindled
to a mere summer suburb, his view is contradicted by Vetancurt's
report that during the Pueblo Revolt in 1680 "the Zufiis again
burned" it, although he says the resident priest escaped (Vetan-
curt, 1871, pp. 320-321). Hodge felt that Vetancurt was probably
correct, although he was not positively convinced, as is evident
from his statement :
If the Hawikuh church and monastery were rebuilt after
their destruction by the Apache in 1672, then they were again
destroyed by fire in 1680, as Vetancurt states and as ex-
cavation amply proved, for there was scarcely a fragment of
wood in these two adjoining structures that had not been
reduced to charcoal (Hodge, 1937 a, p. loi).
When Diego de Vargas came to Zufii in 1692, following the
Spanish reconquest of New Mexico, the Zuhis were again living
on Towayalane, and all their other villages lay abandoned (Si-
giienza y Gongora, 1932, pp. 78-80, 119-120), a situation that has
continued to this day, since the present village of Zufii represents
a new settlement made after 1692, partly on the site of the old
village of Halona, partly across the river on its right bank.
Excavation of the Franciscan establishment at Hawikuh estab-
lished the fact that it had indeed been an imposing and substantial
architectural complex, consisting of a large church about 112 feet
in length by about 36 feet in breadth with a single bell tower, a
campo santo or cemetery, 172 by 95 feet in dimensions, and a
friary about 120 by 75 feet, built as a hollow square around an
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY lOI
Open garth. The friary contained about sixteen rooms, including
a chapel, and an ambulatory surrounding the garth. It may have
been in part two stories high, as suggested by the presence of two
sets of stairs. Both the church and the friary were built of adobe
bricks with main walls varying from 2|- to 4J feet in thickness.
The excavations, however, did not clearly resolve the questions
of destruction, abandonment, and reconstruction, suggested in the
foregoing historical resume. Certainly the buildings had been
burned at least once, and had not been rebuilt after the latest
burning (if there was more than one) . Certainly also the friary had
been occupied by the Indians after its final abandonment by the
Spanish and after its latest burning, as evidenced by the numerous
secondary masonry walls constructed to subdivide the large
Spanish rooms into smaller apartments suitable for indigenous
Zufii residential purposes. In these small rooms were found nu-
merous native fireplaces, artifacts, and other evidence of Indian
occupancy. Perhaps it also had been occupied by the Indians
during one of the earlier periods of temporary abandonment.
If the latest burning occurred in 1680, it is quite possible that
the Zufiis moved in and lived there for a few years, until the threat
of Spanish reconquest in 1692 drove them to take refuge on T6-
wayalane. This is exactly what happened at the Hopi village of
Awatovi under similar circumstances (Montgomery, Smith, and
Brew, 1949, pp. 18, 80; Fig. 4).
On the other hand, the final burning may have been that
perpetrated by the Apaches in 1672, and, if that is so, the ruins
that were uncovered by the excavators must represent the build-
ings as they existed during their second period of activity, fol-
lowing the fire of 1632, that is, from about 1642 until 1672. Wheth-
er the buildings as they existed at the time of final abandonment
include any remnants of the original structures built between 1629
and 1632 cannot be determined. It is possible that they do and
that the ravages of the fire of 1632 were obliterated by the resto-
ration of the church and friary either to their original form or in
an enlarged and elaborated form on the earlier foundations. What
can be said is that the buildings as we have them represent the
mission as it was either after the fire of 1672, or after a putative,
but inadequately documented, fire of 1680; in other words, from
1642 to at least 1672, and perhaps at the latest to 1680. Probably
it makes little difference to the interpretation of the broad history
of Hawikuh exactly what happened to the mission during those
102 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
last 8 years. It was certainly active during parts of the second and
third quarters of the 17th century in essentially the form as we
see it. Its ruins are eloquent of the glory and the tragedy of the
early missionary effort in that far frontier village of the Provincia
del Santo Evangelio, and the story of its excavation and inter-
pretation will be told as fully as may be in the following pages.
THE EXCAVATION OF FRANCISCAN HAWIKUH
The Franciscan buildings discovered and excavated at Hawi-
kuh consisted of a large church and a friary with residential
quarters, offices, kitchen and refectory (Figure 20; Plate 18, a, b).
All were built of adobe bricks of fairly uniform size, which were
molded, probably in wooden forms, on the site. The church was
not cruciform, but was an elongated rectangle in shape, with a
main entrance at the northeast end and a trapezoidal apse at the
southwest, within which was placed the sanctuary and the main
altar, raised about 4 feet above the floor of the nave. On each side
of the steps leading to the main altar at the level of the nave was
a side altar. The church may have had two bell towers, and
certainly had one. Across its facade was a balcony and above the
nave and immediately inside the door was a choir loft. At the
right of the church was a baptistery, and adjoining the left side
of the sanctuary were a sacristy and a small chapel.
The friary itself was a series of rooms formed in a hollow square
and opening into a colonnade or ambulatory that surrounded an
enclosed courtyard or garth. In this building dwelt the friars and
perhaps some of their native neophytes. Doubtless a few of the
rooms were also used as schools or workshops, and a large kitchen
served the culinary needs of the residents.
The surviving walls of these structures stood nowhere more
than 10 feet high at the time of excavation, and it is impossible
to estimate what had been their original height. Nor can we say
with certainty how they had been roofed, although it is a reason-
able guess that both church and friary had had flat roofs
supported by large transverse logs of pine or fir, perhaps laid on
corbels, and covered by purlins, brush, and earth.
At some date after the departure of the friars the native
Indians took over the friary (though they do not seem to have
invaded the church), and reconstructed it according to their needs.
The alterations consisted mainly of building narrow partitions of
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY IO3
salvaged adobe bricks within most of the large Spanish rooms, to
create much smaller living, working, and storage quarters in the
native pattern.
Although Spanish military escorts must, at certain times, have
been stationed at Hawikuh, no clear archaeological evidence of
their presence was found. Probably they occupied rooms com-
mandeered in the pueblo.
There was no archaeological evidence to indicate the sequence
of construction within the Franciscan establishment, and we shall
discuss its parts in an arbitrary order, beginning with the church
and then proceeding to the other architectural features, including
the baptistery, the friary, and the cemetery. Regardless of the
exact sequence in which the various parts may have been built, or
how they may have been rebuilt following the several incendiary
attacks upon them, they were used through most of their history
as a single unit, and except in a few special cases, which will be
discussed, in substantially the form in which they appeared at
the time of excavation.
A thorough account of the excavation of the contemporary and
closely similar Franciscan mission of San Bernardo de Aguatubi
in the Hopi country has been reported by J. O. Brew of the Pea-
body Museum of Harvard University, and a great deal of what
is said there has close application to the church and friary of
Hawikuh. Furthermore, as a major part of the report on Awatovi,
there is included a scholarly study by Ross G. Montgomery of the
entire Franciscan missionary effort in New Spain and New Mexico,
as well as his hypothetical, but authoritative and exhaustive,
reconstruction of the Spanish buildings at Awatovi. Except for
obvious differences in detail, almost everything in Montgomery's
reconstruction of San Bernardo could be applied with equal ap-
propriateness to La Purisima Concepcion. Interested readers are
urged to consult freely both Brew's and Montgomery's reports.
Because of their close parallelism to the situation at Hawikuh,
specific references in the text to follow herein have been kept
minimal (Montgomery, Smith, and Brew, 1949).
THE CHURCH
The Nave (Room 41)
Ground plan: Figure 20; Drawing: Figure 21; Photograph:
Plate 18, a.
104 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The church itself was a surprisingly ambitious and substantial
building, with walls varying from 3 feet 9 inches to 4 feet 6 inches
in thickness, and constructed of adobe bricks molded in forms to
a fairly uniform size of about 22 inches by 10 J inches by 3 inches,
and laid in adobe mortar in even courses with broken joints. The
long axis of the church lay in an approximately northeast-south-
west orientation, with its main entrance facing northeast. The
extreme exterior dimensions were approximately 112 feet in length
by approximately 36 feet in width. The interior of the nave
measured 81 feet 6 inches by 26 feet 6 inches, and the sanctuary,
including the steps in front of it, was 22 feet deep and 12 feet
3 inches wide at its forward part, tapering slightly to about 11 feet
at the back. The walls of the church varied in height at the time
of excavation from about 7 feet 6 inches to 9 feet, and there was
no remaining evidence of windows. Undoubtedly, however, win-
dows had originally existed at a higher level. The field notes do
not mention any evidence of plaster on the inner face of the walls,
but fragments appear in some of the field photographs and it is
an almost certain inference that one or more coats did exist,
perhaps of white gypsum, and very likely painted in some simu-
lation of a tiled pattern, as was the case in at least one room
(Room 21, pp. 113-114; Figure 27), and in many contemporary
churches in New Mexico. (See Montgomery, Smith and Brew,
1949, pp. 291-323, for a description of mural painting in the
church of San Bernardo de Aguatubi.)
Abutting the outer face of the main adobe walls of the church
along its northwest side ran a low stone wall about 5 feet thick.
An abutting wall of rock and adobe, about 3 feet 4 inches thick,
extended along the northwest and southwest sides of the bap-
tistery. No further description of these walls appears in the field
notes, and their purpose is not apparent, but they were still visible
in 1963.
Doorways
The heavy walls of the church were pierced by three doorways.
That in the main entrance was 7 feet wide on its outer side,
broadening to 8 feet on its inner. It had originally been closed by
double wooden doors, whose existence was indicated by the pre-
sence of a wooden sill set into the floor of the doorway. This sill
had been squared to a width of 10 inches and a thickness of
7 inches, and was set 11 inches inward from the outer face of the
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY IO5
wall. Near the end of the sill were small round holes, serving as
sockets for pivots originally set in the lower ends of the stiles of
swinging doors. These doors probably swung inward, since the
battering of the sides of the doorway in that direction would more
easily accommodate them. A corresponding pivot would have
existed at the upper end of the stile, turning in a socket in the
wooden lintel.
A second doorway led from the front of the nave through the
northwest wall into what was undoubtedly a baptistery, which
will be further described at length (pp. iio-iii). This doorway
was 5 feet i inch wide as it entered the nave, and broadened to
5 feet 6 inches at its baptistery face. A wooden sill had been set
on the floor, extending several inches above the latter (Figure 22) .
The width of this sill was not recorded, but its length was con-
siderably greater than the width of the doorway, and it extended
a foot or more into the adobe wall on each side. Two squared
wooden jambs stood at the sides of the doorway, each 3 inches by
2 inches in section ; holes had been cut for them in the sill, through
which their lower ends extended about i foot into the adobe floor.
The horizontal distance between jambs was 3 feet 9I inches, and
they were not recessed into the walls, but stood free. Near the
right end of the sill, as one passes from the nave, was a round
socket for the reception of a pivot on which the door itself had
swung, and all courses of adobe above the lowermost in that face
of the doorway had been beveled back to permit the door to swing
into the recess thus formed. No fragment of the door itself re-
mained.
The third doorway led through the southeast wall of the nave
immediately in front of a side altar that was situated on the
Gospel side of the sanctuary, and into Room 21, the function of
which was uncertain. This doorway was 3 feet 9 inches wide on
both of its faces, and was paved with sandstone slabs to a height
of about 5 inches above the floor of the nave. On these slabs lay
a squared wooden sill flush with the walls of the nave. The sill
was 6J inches wide by 4J inches high and its ends had not been
set into the side walls. Sockets existed at each end of the sill,
3J inches in diameter, thus indicating the existence of double
swinging doors opening outward from the nave.
Remnants of plaster decorated with a painted dado extended
from the walls of Room 21 around the walls of the embrasure, and
will be further described subsequently (pp. 113-114). Evidence of
I06 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
fire was apparent here, suggesting that the conflagration had orig-
inated in the church, swept through this doorway and through
Room 21, and had continued along the northwest and southwest
passages of the ambulatory.
The Choir Loft
At the northeast end of the nave, immediately above the main
entrance, there had been a choir loft. While no remnant of this
loft had survived, two roughly rectangular holes found in the floor
of the nave indicated the position of posts for its support. These
holes were situated about 14 feet inside the front wall of the nave
and about 8 feet from its sides, with an interval between them of
about 7 feet. No evidence of a stairway in the nave was found,
but access to the loft was probably provided by a stairway in
Room 29 in the friary.
The Main Facade
The plan of the front of the church shows that the actual facade
was recessed about 6 feet 6 inches within two rectangular but-
tresses, which may both have been the bases of towers. The em-
brasure between these buttresses was about 25 feet 6 inches wide,
and within it had stood two posts, situated almost in line with
the frontal faces of the buttresses and about 8 feet and 7 feet
respectively from the southeast and northwest sides. Although
nothing remained of a balcony, the posts must have supported
such a structure, which v/as a common feature of churches of the
period. It is possible that access to this balcony as well as to the
choir loft could have been effected from the stairway in Room 29
(pp. 117-118, 131-133; Figure 30). A reconstruction of the possible
appearance of the facade is shown in Figure 21.
The Sanctuary
Ground plan and elevations : Figures 23 and 24 ; Photographs :
Plates 17, a, b; 19, d.
At the southwest end of the church there existed a trapezoidal
apse, extending about 16 feet beyond the nave and tapering in-
ward sHghtly toward the back. Within this apse and about 4 feet
above the floor of the nave stood the main altar, which was
fortunately in an excellent state of preservation. The floor of the
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY IO7
sanctuary was reached by 7 steps, the tread of each being about
13 inches in width, and the rise about 6 or 7 inches. The lowest
step was about 9 feet 9 inches long, but the flight tapered slightly
toward the top, which was only 8 feet 6 inches in length. The
front of the elevated portion of the sanctuary was almost flush
with the front of the apse and filled it from side to side. Each step
was supported by a squared wooden beam, 6 inches by 8 inches,
forming the riser and upper front corner, with sandstone slabs or
hard-packed adobe plaster as paving on the treads. The ends of
the beams rested on stepped adobe walls between which was a
solid fill of earth. The beams had been badly charred but remained
in position. On their vertical faces had been mounted fragments
of split selenite, probably attached with pinyon gum. These were
arranged in diamond patterns and would probably have afforded
a conspicuous reflection from the morning sun through the open
main doorway. A collection of similar pieces was later found in a
room of the pueblo.
The lowest step was the widest and was also faced with the
beam of greatest width. Into the ends of this timber mortises,
about 4 inches square, were cut to receive the tenons of newel posts
that were set at each side of the staircase. The newel posts were
also mortised on their back in two places to receive the ends of the
upper and lower guard rails that formed a balustrade for the
stairway.
The stubs of adzed timbers, approximately 10 inches square
and burned off level with the top step, were found directly behind
each end of the top step. Undoubtedly these were the remaining
bases of posts that had served to support the upper ends of the
rails of the balustrade, as well as similar rails that must have
extended to the side walls of the chancel. Two short pieces of
timber were used to face the edge of the platform from the upper
newel posts to the side walls.
The floor of the sanctuary itself was paved with adobe bricks,
and surfaced with hard-packed adobe. Upon it a predeUa, or plat-
form, of adobe bricks (measuring about 5 feet 7 inches front to
back, and about 7 feet 6 inches in width in its original form) had
been erected. This predeUa did not extend all the way to the back
wall of the apse, but was set forward about 2 feet 6 inches from it.
The predella also did not extend fully across the apse, but term-
inated about 2 feet from each of the side walls. The adobes of
which the predella was made were laid in four transverse rows;
I08 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
the two rearward rows consisted of four bricks each, laid with
their long dimensions across the apse, the two foremost rows of
seven bricks each, at right angles to the others.
The First Altar
On the rearward part of this predella had been erected the
original altar, although it had later undergone at least one revision.
It consisted in its earlier form of a double wall of adobe bricks
at least ii courses high. The bricks, which measured on the average
22|^ inches by loj inches by 3 inches, were laid in adobe mortar
without broken joints, their long dimension transverse to the apse.
The thickness of the altar was, thus, about 21 to 22 inches, and
its width about 7 feet 6 inches. Whether its original height had
been appreciably greater than the 3 feet 6 inches still standing at
the time of excavation is uncertain because its uppermost portion
had been eroded.
The face of this altar was covered with a very smooth coating
of white gypsum plaster. Whether or not this had ever been
decorated was not determined. The portion of the predella left
free before this altar was about 3 feet 9 inches in depth, and it
was covered with a thin surface of hard-packed adobe plaster.
Immediately in front of it there was a slight lowering of i inch in
the sanctuary floor, which, added to the thickness of the bricks,
created a low step 4 inches high. About i foot farther forward
another low step, i inch high, existed, its face reinforced by small
stone spalls set into the adobe. From this point the sanctuary
floor extended forward about 7 feet to the top of the main stairs.
When this first altar was built and at what time it was rebuilt
cannot be ascertained. It may date back to the earliest period of
construction soon after 1629, or it may have been installed after
the fire of 1632, or even at a later date. In any event, at some
time before final abandonment, it underwent extensive alterations.
The Second Altar
In order to create a larger and more elaborate altar, two
squared logs about 4 inches square were laid on top of the old
adobe-brick predella, one on each edge of it. These sills extended
forward from the face of the old altar about 4 feet 6 inches and
backward to the rear wall of the apse, into which slots were cut
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY IO9
I foot deep to receive their ends. The old altar was not removed,
but slots were cut through the lowest course of adobes on each
side to permit the wooden sills to pass through. The forward ends
of the sills were rabbeted across their upper surfaces, and a trans-
verse sill, similarly rabbeted and pegged with oak dowels, was
laid across them to form a frontal member, which thus formed
the step to the new predella about i foot 6 inches in front of that
of the earlier predella. Inside this wooden frame and above the
original bricks was laid a solid adobe floor flush with the tops of
the frame. Upon this and snugly against the gypsum-plastered
face of the earlier altar was raised a new facing of adobes, one
brick in thickness, their long dimensions parallel to the plane of
the face and laid with broken joints.
On the new and higher adobe floor of the predella a hard
plaster surfacing was laid. Lying upon this was found a rectangular
slab of purplish-brown sandstone, very carefully formed. Its ex-
treme dimensions were i6^ inches by 13 inches and it was i|
inches thick. Its edges showed a slight outward swell and the
corners were rounded. The faces were beautifully smoothed by
rubbing, and the junctions of the faces and edges were neatly
rounded. Clearly this stone must have served some significant and
sacred purpose, but exactly what is not clear.
The raising of the level of the predella demanded also a cor-
responding increase in the height of the sanctuary floor, and this
was accomplished by setting a long, squared sill completely across
the sanctuary approximately half way between the front of the new
predella and the top of the sanctuary stairs. This sill was recessed
into the side waUs of the apse and the area behind it was filled with
adobe, thus creating an intermediate step about 6 inches high.
Lying haphazardly upon the sandstone slab were found several
objects, all charred and fragmentary. One was a small wooden
cross with mica facings ; another was a round copper disk, paper-
thin, almost completely oxidized, so that it fell to pieces on
handling. The third object was part of a large wooden cross which
had been very neatly formed. The shaft and arms were each a
single piece of wood, rabbeted out in their center portions, with
slightly raised margins; at the point of intersection they were
fastened by two wooden pegs.
The field notes throughout are very meager in their descrip-
tions of both Indian and Spanish objects found in the excavations.
These items are at present in the Museum of the American Indian
no THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
in New York and await careful study and reporting. It has not
been feasible to accomplish this task within the time and resources
available for the preparation of this volume, which is based pri-
marily on Hodge's records and not on the entire collection of
material from Hawikuh.
The Side Altars
Two side altars were constructed at some time in the corners
of the nave and on either side of the stairway leading up to the
sanctuary. As will be seen from the plan (Figure 20) and the
photograph (Plate 17, a), these altars were separated from the
stairway by an area about i to ij feet in width, and each rose
from a predella about 5 inches to 6 inches above the nave. They
are not discussed in the field notes, and cannot be further de-
scribed.
Burials
Beneath the floor of the nave and immediately in front of
the sanctuary stairs were found almost 40 burials and one within
the sanctuary itself. These will be discussed in the section on
burials in Chapter IV.
THE CEMETERY
The main entrance of the church opened into a large, walled
enclosure that is referred to as the cemetery, although the field
notes do not indicate that any graves were excavated there. This
area extended northeastward 172 feet 5 inches and was 95 feet
5 inches wide. Remains of a low wall 2 feet 11 inches thick sur-
rounded it, with two gateways, each about 8 feet wide, one in the
center of the northeast wall, the other near the south corner. No
structures existed within this area.
THE BAPTISTERY (rOOM 31)
Ground plan and Profile: Figure 25; Photograph: Plate 19, a.
Adjoining the church, and to the right of the nave, was an
interesting room, No. 31. Its southeast wall was also the main wall
of the nave, and its other three walls were integral with that one.
All were built of adobe brick, varying in thickness from 2 feet
6 inches to 3 feet. The room was not perfectly rectangular, mea-
suring 26 feet 2 inches along the wall contiguous to the nave, but
26 feet 7 inches along the opposite wall. The end walls were 15 feet
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY III
2 inches, and 15 feet 9 inches long, respectively. The room was
entered by a single door from the nave of the church, which is
described on page 105. No evidence of windows was found.
That this room had been the baptistery is undoubted, as ex-
plained elsewhere by Montgomery (pp. 126-127), but at this point
we shall discuss merely the archaeological findings, without func-
tional or historical interpretations.
Within the room a nearly rectangular curbing or step ran
parallel to the northeast, southeast, and southwest sides of the
room, distant 2 feet to 2 feet 8 inches from the northeast and
southeast sides, and about 8 feet from the southwest side. This
curbing varied from 11 inches to 13 inches in width and rose
3 inches to 4 inches above the floor on its outer face, but dropped
about 6 inches to 8 inches on its inner face, the floor within the
enclosure being slightly lower than that without. Whether the
curbing originally existed on the fourth side parallel to the north-
west wall is not certain, since the floor in that area had been
disturbed. The enclosure within the curbing was from 13 feet
2 inches to 13 feet 5 inches long by at least 8 feet 6 inches wide.
At the southwest side of the sunken enclosure a roughly rect-
angular platform had been built whose outer dimensions varied
from 6 feet 8 inches to 7 feet i inch. This platform rose in a single
step I foot above the floor of the enclosure on its northeast and
southeast sides, but on the southwest side, where it was contiguous
to the curbing, there were two steps, each about 6 inches high.
Upon the platform rose what appeared to be the base of a
square column about 3 feet 6 inches by 4 feet in section, and
decorated on parts of its surface with a design in red, white, and
black paint. (The field notes do not indicate the materials from
which the platform and the column were made, nor do they de-
scribe the decoration.) The existing height of the column was only
I foot 2 inches to the ground surface at the time of excavation.
Presumably it had originally extended to a height of about 3 feet
4 inches, and supported some sort of basin or font.
THE CHAPEL AND SACRISTY (ROOMS 21, 25, 30)
Ground plan: Figure 26; Photographs: Plates iS,b; ig, c;
Drawings: Figures 33, 34, 35.
A group of rooms at the western corner of the friary, and
adjoining the left or Gospel side of the sanctuary of the church,
112 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
present an interesting and complex problem. These are designated
Rooms 21, 25, and 30. Room 24 represents what was originally a
part of Room 25, later subdivided when the friary was occupied
by the Indians following its abandonment, either in 1672 or 1680.
This phase of the apartment will be considered later (p. 122) ; at
this time we shall discuss Room 25 in its Spanish phase as including
the area that later became Room 24.
Room 25 was clearly a chapel and had been very painstak-
ingly furnished. Its extreme dimensions were about 14 feet by
about 23 feet, the long axis extending northeastward, parallel to
that of the nave of the church. The northeasterly portion of the
room, about 14 feet square, had been paved with adobe bricks
laid in seven rows of 14 bricks each, their long dimensions trans-
verse to the long axis of the room, without broken joints, and a
single row of 7 bricks along the southeast side of the room, laid
at right angles to the others. The whole arrangement was very
precise and neat. Its surface was about 6 inches to 7 inches higher
than that of Room 21, immediately to the northeast.
The chapel was entered from Room 21 through a doorway
about 5 feet 3 inches wide. Although the field notes do not men-
tion it, there appears to have been a sill across the outer edge of
the doorway above which probably was installed a door of some
sort.
Extending across the room at a point 14 feet from its entrance
were two steps leading upward to a raised area or predella on
which had probably once stood an altar, doubtless razed when
the area was reoccupied by the Indians. The steps were from
4 inches to 4 J inches high and 11 inches deep, paved with adobe
bricks. Extending backward from the top step for a distance of
5 feet 6 inches was a tamped adobe floor that terminated at a
large, squared beam 4J inches wide by 5J inches high and set
I inch into the floor, that extended completely across the room
and was embedded a few inches at each end into the side walls of
the room.
Behind this beam, a pit 9 inches deep extended 2 feet 8 inches
to the back wall of the room. The floor of this pit was on the same
level as the paved floor in the front of the room and probably was
part of the original floor before the predella was constructed. In
the back wall were four vertical slots from 7 to 9 inches above the
floor of the pit, from 4 to 6 inches high, and from 4 J to 7 inches
wide. The field notes here are obscure, but they state that "6
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY II3
wooden beams formed lintels extending 15 inches in the walls on
both sides," that their "widths" were from 2| to 9 inches, and
that they were "covered with a layer of small slabs i inch thick."
While it is impossible to reconstruct this framework accurately,
it must have formed some sort of complicated structure above the
pit, the exact function of which is not perfectly clear; but Mont-
gomery's convincing deduction is that it was involved with some
intricate reconstruction required when the predella was installed
and the altar raised at a time later than that of the original con-
struction of the room (pp. 127-129).
A window 2 feet 10 inches wide opened through the southwest
wall over the predella. Its sill was 3 feet 2|- inches above the floor
and it was 4 feet 6 inches from the back wall of the room. The
condition of the walls outside this window was obscure, and there
may have been reconstruction there at some time that rendered
it obsolete. Similar doubts pertain to two other small openings in
the southwest wall of Room 25, which are discussed in connection
with Room 30 (pp. 114-115).
Room 21 was probably a sacristy from which entrance could
be had both to the nave and sanctuary of the church through a
doorway already described (p. 105), and to the chapel in Room 25.
It also opened into the ambulator}/ by a doorway to the northeast.
The room was floored with packed adobe that had been fire-
hardened in the conflagration that had destroyed the building.
Many pieces of charcoal were found here, their shapes and sizes
suggesting the presence of a considerable quantity of carved fur-
niture.
Remnants of white gypsum plaster remained on the walls of
Room 21 and extended through the doorway into the church. On
this plaster were the remains of elaborate painted decoration, in
the form of a dado several feet high. Lightly incised lines indicated
that the whole design had first been scratched in the plaster before
any paint was applied, and that both stencils and compasses had
probably been used in laying out the more intricate details. Along
the base was an umber stripe 2 inches high, its upper edge marked
by an incised line. The color was undoubtedly later applied by the
Indians, following only approximately the guide Hues laid out by
the Franciscans. Eight other incised lines above and parallel to
this one and varjdng from 2 J to 2f inches apart, were crossed
obHquely by a second series at approximately the same intervals,
forming a band of diamond-shaped spaces, alternately colored
114 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
with white and dull red. Above this area a white band i inch high,
surmounted by a dull red band of the same width, formed the base
for a row of vertical bars of yellowish umber, if inches wide,
8J inches high, and from ii| to 12J inches apart, enclosed along
the top by a narrow band of red. In this enclosed space diamond-
shaped figures, with their corners touching the centers of the four
sides of the open rectangles, were incised. Some of the diamonds
contained a pattern in simulation of glazed tiles. A particularly
well-preserved portion of this design extended around the jambs
of the doorway into the church, and it is a reasonable inference
that the walls of the church itself had once been similarly dec-
orated (Figure 27).
Painted simulation of tiles was a common practice in the
poorer and more remote Spanish colonial churches of the period,
and numerous examples have been recorded, especially in the
church at Awatovi, which was contemporary with that at Hawikuh
and had much in common with it (Montgomery, Smith, and Brew,
1949, pp. 289-339, Figures 52-62).
Room 30 may have been, as Montgomery suggests (p. 127),
a small sacristy, although the door, which was only about 2 feet
wide, would have made access difficult. The sill of this door was
I foot above the floor of the chapel (Room 25) , and i foot 3 inches
above the floor of Room 30. The field notes record ''squared
adzed lintels" for this doorway, but their height above the floor
is not stated.
A somewhat problematical opening existed in the southeast
wall of Room 30, possibly having been a niche, but perhaps giving
into the chapel (Room 25). It was 2 feet 10 inches wide in Room 25,
but somewhat narrower in Room 30; its sill was 2 feet 9 inches
above the floor of Room 30, and thus about i foot 6 inches above
the floor of Room 25. It could hardly have been useful as either
a window or a door, unless it was created and used by the Indians
as access to Room 30 after Room 25 had been partly filled and
reoccupied by them. If Room 30 was used by them as a storeroom,
a door of this size would have been consistent with Pueblo archi-
tectural practice.
Room 30 had suffered from fire, which had, however, been
partly smothered by falling walls and roof. On the floor were found
several objects of wood. Most of these were remnants of what
appeared to have been originally four or five carved, round columns
that may have formed parts of the balustrade in the church or
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY II5
perhaps of an altar rail. There was also a carved wooden candle-
stick and a fragment of wood bearing a rectangular tenon. These
were doubtless thrown into the room carelessly, perhaps by Indi-
ans, after the fire, for all were charred. With them were a few
native artifacts, including a small red jar, a stone disk with
basketry covering, a bundle of 20 strands of braided hair, and
some corn cobs and husks. These artifacts await study in the
Museum and are not further discussed herein.
THE KITCHEN AND REFECTORY (ROOMS I3 AND I4)
Ground plan and Profile: Figure 28.
Room 13, near the southerly corner of the friary, was the
kitchen, and was entered from the ambulatory by a finely made
doorway, 3 feet 5 inches wide on each of its faces. In the outer
side of the doorway, a wooden sill had been placed 3 to 4 inches
above the general level of the passageway, although the floor had
been gently sloped upward to meet it. The sill was 4 inches thick
and 5 1 inches wide, and its ends had been set into the walls on
each side of the opening, 13 inches on one side, 11 inches on the
other. Stone paving slabs were laid on each side of the sill. At the
right side, as one entered the kitchen, was an upright wooden
jamb, which had been mortised into the sill by a beveled tenon
2 inches by 3 J inches in section at its base, and 4 inches deep.
Part of this tenon remained in the mortise at the time of excava-
tion. At the left end of the sill was a cylindrical socket 3 inches in
diameter and 3 inches deep, to receive a pivot attached to the
bottom of the stile of the door, which had swung into the kitchen.
The socket stood 2 inches from the side wall of the doorway. A
raised lip, about i inch high, along the outer side of the sill had
been shaped from the same piece of wood and served as a door
stop. Stops also were placed along the jambs extending below the
sill and mitered into it.
The doorway led into the southwesterly half of the room,
which was divided from the northeasterly half by a low wall of
adobe bricks two or three courses high. Its purpose was not evi-
dent, and it may have represented some alteration begun but
never finished, or it may have been erected by Indians after the
end of Spanish occupancy.
To the left, across this low barrier was the operative culinary
area. At the end of the room and against the northeast wall a pit
8*
Il6 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
extended completely across, its bottom from 6 inches to lo inches
below the floor level, and 2 feet 6 inches wide. Across the front of
the pit was a row of stone slabs set on edge ; these had probably
once extended the entire length of the pit, but at the time of ex-
cavation only four or five remained. Two similar slabs were set
against the left-end wall. The pit was almost filled with wood ashes.
Toward the right-hand end of the pit were three partitions,
each about 22 inches long, 3 inches thick and from 6 to lof inches
high, and made of a single adobe brick set on edge, forming three
small separated fireplaces, respectively 3 feet 3 inches, i foot
9 inches, and 8 inches wide. In his field notes, Jesse L. Nusbaum,
who excavated the church and friary, wrote: "To carry smoke off
from the whole bank of fires, a hood was probably made of logs
ending above the roof in a series of chimneys. If so, this is the
first of the long wall fireplaces such as are found in modern Zufii,
under which general cooking is done as well as the making
of paper bread on a series of stones held up by rocks or adobes off
the bed of coals." (See pp. 24-28 for a discussion of this subject
by Hodge).
Directly in front of the fireplaces was a raised area about 4 feet
broad and about 16 inches above the general floor level, thus
making the pit about 2 feet deep. This platform was paved with
long sandstone slabs and adobe bricks, and there was a single step
at its right end formed by a stone 2 feet 7 inches long, i foot wide,
and 5 inches high. At its left end the platform had been extended
along the southwest waU for a distance of 4 feet 6 inches.
A bench of adobes 2 feet 7 inches wide and of the same height
extended for the full length along the right or southeast side of
the room.
At the opposite end of the room there was a peculiar storage
structure formed by an adobe partition one brick in thickness,
with a door 2 feet 3 inches wide near its midpoint. The area thus
set off was 2 feet | inch wide and 11 feet 9 J inches long. In the
face of the back wall and 2 feet 4 inches above the floor were
3 holes averaging 2J inches in diameter. The first was flush with
the southeast wall, the second 7 J inches from it, and the third
2 feet 2 inches from the second. These probably once held sticks
to support a shelf.
No clear evidence points to any particular room as the refec-
tory, but it must have been fairly large and close to the kitchen.
The area designated as Rooms 14 and 18, originally a single room,
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY II7
may have fulfilled this function. It was the largest room in the
friary, measuring 31 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 3 inches, and was
situated just across the passageway from the kitchen. It was
entered through a doorway in its northeast wall about 4 feet wide,
with a stone sill and wooden frame. Two Spanish-style fireplaces
occurred in the westerly and northerly corners. This room had
later been subdivided for Indian occupancy into no less than seven
separate rooms, and all Spanish features were obliterated. One
of the partitions was of stone masonry, the only such example in
the entire friary.
STAIRWAYS (rooms I AND 29)
Ground plans: Figures 29, 30; Photograph: Plate 19, h.
There were two well-constructed stairways in the friary, only
the lower steps of which had survived. Since the upper parts had
disappeared, their nature and purpose were not readily evident.
The stairway in Room i was particularly puzzling. It extended
completely across a sort of passageway 5 feet 11 inches wide
which was in effect a continuation of the northeast section of the
ambulatory, between Rooms 2 and 7. This passageway was par-
titioned from the ambulatory but access was provided by a wide
doorway through the partition that showed no evidence of sill
or frame. This doorway had later been sealed, apparently by the
Franciscans. It was 3 feet 7 inches wide at its outer face in the
ambulatory but widened to 5 feet 5 inches (only 6 inches less than
the width of the passageway) at its other face. About 5 feet from
the door the stairway began, and continued upward in a series of
steps from 16 inches to 20 inches wide and from 6 inches to y\
inches high. There were six such steps carrying up to and against
the existing outer wall of the friary at a point perhaps 2 feet below
the present ground level, and they must have led to an exterior
doorway of which, however, there was no evidence. The field notes
do not indicate how the steps were constructed. For a speculative
discussion of this whole problem by Montgomery see pp. 131-134.
Room 29 also contained a stairway situated in a narrow well
that formed an extension of the northwest section of the ambula-
tory between the nave of the church and Room 36. The well was
4 feet 6 inches wide and 17 feet 6 inches long and the stairs
extended completely across it. No partition or doorway intervened
between the well and the ambulatory, and the bottom step rose
Il8 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
flush with the wall of the latter. Four steps rose, each from 9 inches
to II inches high and from 12 to 15 inches wide, to a landing
5 feet 6 inches long; from there four more steps, each from 8|
inches to lof inches high and averaging 15 inches wide, continued
up to the present surface, at a point about 5 feet short of the outer
wall of the friary. The treads and landing were paved with large
slabs of sandstone, some neatly cut to cover an entire step.
While it is not perfectly certain where this stairway originally
led, it seems likely that it gave access to the choir loft and balcony
as well as to a bell tower, if one existed at this corner of the church,
as postulated by Montgomery's analysis, set forth on pp. 131-133.
Remains of a painted dado survived on the walls of the stair-
well. After the original wall had been smoothly plastered with
fine-grained clay, a coating of umber-colored material was applied.
The whole wall was then given a pure white finish by the use of
a wash of calcined selenite or crystallized gypsum, and a band of
reddish clay was then applied to a height of approximately 2 feet
6 inches above the floor, a lightly incised line indicating its upper
limit. A second incised line, 2 inches above, delimited a band of
dull black, followed by a band of yellowish umber 2 inches wide,
and a final narrow band of black f inches wide.
THE GARTH AND PATIO
The garth was an open, nearly square area about 37 by 39 feet
completely surrounded by the ambulatory. No excavation was
done here, but it had probably been used by the friars as a garden.
One door entered it from the southeast, and at least two windows
were apparent in the wall of the southwest ambulatory. The sills
of these were 3 feet above the floor, and they were 3 feet 6 inches
and 3 feet 9 inches wide respectively. Although windows were not
recorded elsewhere they must have existed on all four sides for
light and ventilation.
The area southwest of the friary was designated in the field
notes as a patio. It had been enclosed by a wall extending along
its southwest side from Room 39 to Room 25, and was without
interior architectural structures, but a test pit sunk about 9 feet
6 inches below the present surface revealed certain interesting
features. The uppermost 2 feet of fill was wind-blown material,
below which lay a stratum 2 feet thick of sheep dung mixed with
earth, and below that 2 feet more of clean wind-blown sand, lying
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY IIQ
on an adobe floor. Below this floor and on bed rock was 3 feet
6 inches of cultural debris, the exact nature of which was not
recorded.
This profile suggests that the general area had been occupied
by the Indians for a considerable time before the arrival of the
Spaniards, and the adobe floor may be interpreted either as the
floor of a native house or as the surface of the patio during the
Spanish period. We incline toward the latter hypothesis because
its level was just about where the surface must have been during
that period. The 2 feet of sand above the floor argue for a con-
siderable time of non-use, but the subsequent deposit of sheep
dung is a little startling. Could 2 feet of sand and 2 feet of dung
have accumulated in the few years between 1672 (or 1680) and
1692 ? It may be that the Zuiiis occupied the site at least as a
sheep corral for a long time after 1692 and before the 19th century,
even though Hawikuh itself had been long deserted as a permanent
dweUing place.
OTHER SPANISH FEATURES
Among the other rooms of the friary very few distinctive
features from the Spanish period were recorded in the field notes,
and these can be briefly discussed topically.
Wall Decoration
On the side wall of the doorway between Room 2 (later 2-E)
and the ambulatory (later Room 16) were the remains of a painted
dado, consisting of a band of red 3 feet high, a narrow stripe of
black ^ inch wide, and above that white plaster to the surface.
This had been preserved by the sealing of the doorway by Indians
after the Spanish had left. Similar fragments remained on the
jambs of the sealed doors of Room 4.
Spanish Fireplaces
In addition to the fireplaces in the kitchen (p. 116) several of
the other rooms contained corner fireplaces of a characteristic
Spanish style. All were placed in corners, with a low, approx-
imately quarticircular curbing of adobe across the front, about
2 to 3 feet in radius, and with or without an adobe shield against
the back wall. Such fireplaces were located in:
120 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Room 2 — South and East corners
Room 7 — South corner
Room 9 — East and West corners (Figure 31)
Room 18 — North and West corners
Room 19 — South corner
Room 22 — South corner
The fireplace in Room 22 was unique in that it was supported
on a platform of earth and stones 3 inches high, the curved front
of which was bordered by a row of small stones set in adobe.
Consideration of fireplaces raises an interesting speculation.
Spanish fireplaces were quite different from Indian ones, the latter
being almost always rectangular, formed as a subfloor box with
stone slab lining, and almost never placed in corners or even against
walls. In fact, only four corner fireplaces (all rectangular and
made of stone slabs, only one with Ancient walls) were recorded
among many hundreds in the native pueblo of Hawikuh, even
among those rooms that were occupied during the 40 or 50 years
of Spanish presence. But in the rooms created by the Indians for
their own use within the friary after the Spanish departure, there
were at least eight fireplaces in corners, four against walls, and
only two not in contact with a wall. All were made with stone
slabs. It would seem that although the Indians were reluctant to
adopt the domestic practices of the padres while they were present,
they followed their lead, at least in part, after their departure.
PRE-SPANISH OCCUPATION AND SUBSEQUENT ALTERATIONS
Certainly there had been native occupation of the mission
area prior to the building of the church and friary, although only
slight exploratory excavation was made. Below the northwest
walls of the church, baptistery, and cemetery were found the
remains of several earlier rooms, which are numbered 32, 33, 34,
and 35 on the plan (Figure 20). Three of these rooms are very
meagerly described in the field notes and nothing whatever is said
about their ceramic contents, so that no close estimate of their
age can be made, but Room 32 (which is also called Room 272
as a part of House Group F in the field notes) had walls described
as "ancient," and the lower of two floors was 7 feet 8 inches below
the surface. The ceramic contents of the fill of both levels was
"Late Polychrome," however, so that its age could not have been
very much pre- Spanish.
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY 121
Alterations by the Friars
Except in the sanctuaries of the main church and of the chapel
(Room 25), very little evidence appears of significant alterations
by the friars during their occupancy, despite the repeated fires and
native depredations. One rather dubious such alteration appears
in Room 2, which was originally a large apartment of at least
14 by 22 feet, and may possibly have included also Room 19.
This latter possibility is suggested by the fact that the partition
between Rooms 2 and 19 is obviously secondary and abuts against
a sealed doorway in the northeast wall. This operation could have
been done later by the Indians, but there is a definite Spanish
fireplace in the south corner of Room 19, and the two doorways
were neatly and solidly filled with adobe bricks, which argues for
continued occupation by the friars.
Rooms 5, 6, 37, 38, and 39 appear to have been added after
the building of the original structure, but their use is not evident.
Native Renovations of the Mission Establishment
It is perfectly evident that after the final departure of the
Spanish, whether in 1672 or 1680, the Indians converted the friary
to their own residental uses and moved in en masse. An exactly
parallel occurrence took place at Awatovi under similar circum-
stances. In both places the natives found that the Spanish rooms
were too large for their convenience or needs, and they con-
structed secondary partitions to create from two to seven rooms
from what had originally been a single apartment. These new
walls were readily distinguishable from the massive and uniform
Spanish walls by their relative thinness, crudity and irregularity.
In one case sandstone was used in the usual Indian manner, but
otherwise the builders employed adobe bricks which they doubt-
less had taken from fallen parts of the friary or the church.
Sometimes the new rooms employed the floors and fireplaces
of the old, but often new floors occurred at levels from a few inches
to several feet above those of the Spanish rooms. Hodge was of the
opinion that there had been two distinct native occupations of
the friary, one between 1635 and 1642, after the Indians had first
expelled the priests, and a later one following the final Franciscan
abandonment, in either 1672 or 1680. That certain rooms (notably
Rooms I, 2, 3, 4, and 29) did have two periods of native occupancy
with successive floors is clear, but this was a common practice
122 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
throughout the old native pueblo and does not necessarily indicate
a long period of Indian occupancy, much less two distinct periods
separated by a Spanish interval of 30 or 40 years. The general
nature of the reoccupation is obvious and a few comments on
specific details will suffice to create the setting.
Since no excavation was done in the garth, it is not known
whether secondary occupation occurred there, as it did at Awa-
tovi (Montgomery, Smith, and Brew, 1949, p. 80, Fig. 4), but
certainly the ambulatory was subdivided into several rooms, des-
ignated on the plan as Rooms 11, 12, 15, 16, 20, 26, 27, and 28.
Oddly, these were all in the northwest and southeast sections,
whereas the northeast and southwest sections were not reoccupied.
In Rooms 26 and 27, corner fireplaces were built, that in Room 26
of adobe in the Spanish manner, that in Room 27 of stone slabs,
but raised above the floor, again a Spanish characteristic.
Room 20 was somewhat unusual in that its floor was 4 feet
2 inches above the Spanish floor and three of its walls were en-
tirely new, built over but not directly upon the older ones. Its
floor was slab-paved and it had a corner fireplace of slabs sunk
slightly below the floor, and another slab fireplace set a few inches
into the southeast waU. The door into Room 21 was blocked and
there was apparently no reoccupation of that apartment.
Room 24 resembled Room 20 in that three of its walls were
entirely new and set within the area of the old Room 25, of which
it occupied roughly the northwesterly half. The new floor was
entirely slab-paved and two slab fireplaces existed, one in a corner,
the other against a wall. All across the northeasterly end ran a
mealing bin with slab sides about 8 inches high.
Room 14, which we suppose to have been the refectory, was
made into no less than seven small rooms. Its division walls were
all of adobe bricks except that between 14-C and 14-D, which was
stone. Only in Room 14-D was there a fireplace, again in a corner,
and the other rooms may have been used for storage. Two of them
contained five small bins.
Room 13, the kitchen, did not appear to have been reoccupied.
Room 9 was bisected by a wall running in its long dimension,
and the former doorway into the ambulatory was blocked. The
new floor was 2 feet above the old, and upon it had been con-
structed a long bench i foot 2 inches high and i foot 6 inches
broad, faced and paved with adobe bricks; and above and behind
this bench, but not extending below its top, was the new wall,
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY I23
also of adobes (Figure 31). A small window pierced its midpoint.
On the bench at its center was a slab fireplace, and another w^as
in the northerly corner, inset into the wall like that in Room i.
Bins were constructed in the easterly corner, one made of adobes
set on edge, the other of slabs.
Room 7 had also been longitudinally bisected by a wall of
stones and adobes. A crude fireplace was built in the westerly
corner, and the doorway into the ambulatory had been blocked,
as was the former doorway between Rooms 7 and g.
Room I, the former stairwell, apparently had a triple reoc-
cupation (Figure 29). A wall had first been constructed along the
top of the second step from the bottom, and the area between this
wall and the doorway may have been used as a room. Later, a
new floor was laid about 4 feet above the original floor on rubble,
thus obscuring all the steps as well as the wall just referred to,
and creating a room with the full area of the original stairwell. In
its westerly corner was a slab fireplace recessed into the original
adobe wall about 4 inches, a stone slab or lintel supporting the
undercut wall. Still later, and from 7 to 12 inches higher, a third
floor was laid with a slab fireplace 25 by 19 inches against the
south wall.
Rooms 2, 3, and 4 must be considered together, for they orig-
inally formed a single large room, which may also have included
Room 19, and its subsequent history is fairly clear from the inter-
relation of its interior features. The entire area during Spanish
times had been paved with adobe bricks. There were once two
doors from this original room leading respectively southwestward
into the ambulatory and northeastward to the exterior, but both
had been sealed with adobe bricks, neatly laid and flush with the
sides of the walls, giving the impression of Spanish workmanship.
Corner fireplaces of Spanish style existed in the southerly and
easterly corners of the original room. A thin wall of adobes one
brick thick was later built on the original floor across the area
between the sealed doors, creating Room 19, probably during the
Spanish period, because a typically Spanish-type quarticircular
fireplace was constructed in the southerly corner of the new Room
19. A small native-style rectangular fireplace, the only one found
in the entire friary, was also constructed in the same room, close
to the middle of the new partition.
Probably soon after the Spanish exodus a wall was built on
the original floor from northeast to southwest, bisecting the larger
124 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
part of the old room, thus creating Room 2 on its southerly side
and a room composed of the combined areas of Rooms 3 and 4 on
its northwesterly side. A slab-paved rectangular fireplace with
vertical backing slabs against the walls was built in the southerly
corner of the new northwest room.
The next building operation was the construction of adobe
walls running northwest-southeast, parallel to the longer walls of
the original room, one wall subdividing Room 2 into the com-
partments designated 2 A and 2B, the other wall creating two
long, narrow rooms enclosing the areas of Rooms 3 A and 4 A on
one side and of 3B and 4B on the other. These new walls were
based on the original floor, but the occupation level was on a new
floor at an unrecorded height above the earlier one.
There must have been a considerable period of non-use fol-
lowing this second occupation, because debris to a depth of about
2 feet 8 inches accumulated, and the upper parts of the secondary
walls had either collapsed or been removed, before the beginning
of a third period. Then two walls were constructed from northeast
to southwest on this fill and across the buried lower courses of
the secondary walls. The effect of these new walls was to create on
this higher level three new rooms enclosing respectively the areas
2 A and 2B, 3 A and 3B, and 4 A and 4B. The wall between
Rooms 2 and 3 was of adobe bricks, that between Rooms 3 and 4
of rubble between poorly laid masonry facings.
Against the center of the southeast wall of Room 2 at this
level was a rectangular fireplace 2 feet 2 inches long, i foot 9 inches
wide, and 4 inches deep, surrounded by a stone curbing 2 inches
thick. Against its northeast side was a masonry wall 8 inches thick
and I foot 6 inches high, apparently as a draft screen. Against
the northwest wall of the new Room 3 was a similar rectangular
fireplace with a stone curbing and a draft screen, the latter being
a single slab extending into the room 9 inches beyond the front
edge of the fire-box (Figure 32) .
A niche of native style was recessed into the northwest wall
of Room 4 about i foot 6 inches above the upper floor.
Room 22 was reoccupied at a level about 3 feet above the
original floor and later was subdivided by an adobe brick wall
II inches thick. The new floor was paved with flagstones, two of
them nearly perfect discs, i foot 4 inches and i foot 11 inches in
diameter respectively. In the northeasterly half of the room was
an unusually large rectangular fireplace near the center, and in
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY 125
one corner an adobe brick bench i foot 7 inches high, 6 feet long,
and 2 feet 11 inches wide.
Room 36 was not reoccupied, but the outside doorway was
closed by a row of posts, perhaps as a cattle fence.
Room 29 was reoccupied at the level of the stair landing, the
new room enclosed by walls of stone and adobe, one across the
entrance to the original staircase, the other on the third step above
the landing. A third floor, paved with flagstones, was later built
at a level 4 feet above the landing and 7 feet 3 inches above the
floor of the ambulatory (Figure 30) .
Rooms 5 and 6 were probably not parts of the friary, and
Hodge believed that they had been built by Indians at a later
date. Their floors were, respectively, 2 feet 8 inches and i foot
8 inches above those of the adjoining rooms. A large rectangular
fireplace i foot 8 inches by 2 feet 6 inches, with high backing slabs
against the walls, was found in the easterly corner of Room 5. A
grinding bin of 3 sections was recessed a few inches into the
western half of the floor, its end against the northeast wall. The
bin was 5 feet 6 inches long by 2 feet wide, and enclosed by
vertical slabs that stood 6 inches above the floor. In the bin
were three metates, and the areas at their lower ends were
paved with small pieces of sandstone, roughly fitted and chinked
with adobe.
In the northerly corner of Room 6 was a platform 8 inches
high, 6 feet long, and i foot 9 inches wide. On this platform and
against the northeast wall, but i foot 3 inches from the corner, was
a rectangular slab fireplace.
There seems to have been no reoccupation of the church or
of the baptistery for residential purposes. But the nave, the
cemetery, and the patio were used as sheep corrals for a con-
siderable period, as evidenced by the accumulation of manure in
all of them. This was 2 or 3 feet thick in the nave, only the ends
of which were excavated. When the site was revisited by the
authors in 1963, the central half of the nave still contained these
layers of dung, and on top of them lay large parts of the southeast
adobe wall, where it had fallen intact across them after the ces-
sation of the period of use for corral purposes.
Since numerous burials were found beneath the floor of
that part of the nave directly in front of the sanctuary steps,
it is very likely that many more lie still in the unexcavated
portion.
126 the excavation of hawikuh
Functional Interpretations of the Church and Friary
by
Ross G. Montgomery
The purposes and functions of most parts of the Franciscan
buildings at Hawikuh are fairly clear and are adequately inferable
from the excavational data as presented above, but the surviving
remains in certain areas present puzzles whose solution is not at
once evident. The following paragraphs are presented as possible
interpretations of several of these obscure situations.
the baptistery
There is no question that Room 31 is a baptistery (Figure 25 ;
Plate 19, a). It is located on the Epistle side of the church, that
is to say, on the right as one faces the sanctuary and the altar.
Custom has decreed that its usual position be on the left or Gospel
side, but this is not mandatory, either now or in the past, by
Church legislation. Erected under Constantine, the earliest ex-
isting baptistery is that of the Lateran, although, in more primitive
fashion, baptismal pools have been discovered in the Roman
catacombs. In the early centuries of Christendom, a baptistery
normally was separated from the church edifice by a small distance,
although a contiguous relationship at times existed. In most in-
stances baptisteries were placed near the atrium or fore-court or
adjacent to a narthex or vestibule. Unbaptised persons or cate-
chumens in early times were not permitted to assist at Mass except
in these two places, and thus the baptistery was liturgically defined
in the areas to which the prospective Christian was confined.
Now, all of this has a bearing on the Hawikuh missionary
edifice. At Hawikuh, there is no narthex, but traditionally the
baptistery has been brought forward as close as possible to a main
entryway recessed in a primitive covered porch, although such a
porch is not properly a narthex. The campo santo, or cemetery, is
a metamorphosed atrium. Ancient religious forms and concepts
hold on tenaciously throughout the ages even to a point sometimes
of barely detectable interdependence.
As to the furnishing of the Hawikuh baptistery, it is archae-
ologically determined that the font was integral with, or was
supported by, a rectangular decorated pedestal placed on a dais
or platform, which, in turn, acted as a foundation. If the font or
basin was separated from the pedestal, which merely offered a
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY 127
support, then quite likely it was a moisture-tight ceramic basin or
a brass or hard tempered copper bowl of fairly large diameter.
(At Awatovi it may have been a ceramic bowl. See Montgomery,
Smith, and Brew, 1949, p. 58). If the basin was a hoUowed-out
receptacle integral with the pedestal itself, then its interior cer-
tainly was plastered with a water-resisting substance unless the
masonry from which it was carved was impervious to saturation.
Whatever other furnishings the baptistery contained were not
determined by archaeological means.
The top of the font basin is customarily about 3 feet 4 inches
above the floor on which the officiating priest and the person to
be baptised stand, or where the latter is held if an infant. At
Hawikuh there is a fairly large sunken floor area on which the
font and its dais are placed. This depressed space was restricted
to those participating directly or indirectly in the ceremony while
others lined up as best they could around the depression, which
is marked off from the rest of the baptistery floor by a ''step."
And here again we are favored by tradition. In the centuries
when Christianity was young, baptism required immersion, and
therefore a large piscina (pool-like tank) was required in which
steps permitted descent into the water. By the 9th century, how-
ever, the immersion ceremony had given way to aspersion and
hence the tank was replaced by the font. Archaeological evidence
shows that vestigial remains of the tank often found expression
in post-9th-century baptisteries where the font was sometimes
placed in a centralized and lowered floor area. The one or more
Franciscan friars constructing the Hawikuh church almost cer-
tainly must have remembered something of this sort, for the
derivation of the sunken floor idea is immediately evident.
The "step'' forming the line of demarcation between the cen-
tral recessed floor and the surrounding floor at a somewhat higher
elevation, could have been finished in a number of ways, but none
of them can certainly be reconstructed from the data at hand.
THE CONVENTUAL CHAPEL
Room 25 (Figure 26) was the conventual chapel. Here the
Blessed Sacrament was reserved continuously — not in the main
church. Room 21 was a sacristy, as was Room 30, a tiny one,
surely, but as large as is customarily found on modern passenger
ships.
128 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Originally the "pit" in Room 25 did not exist. It never would
have existed if the predella had been merely a platform only
large enough to include the reception of the altar plus a space
4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet in front of it for liturgical purposes. That
the friars had at first intended to confine the predella to such a
modest platform is probable. But when they had erected their
somewhat elaborate retables (gradines) and reredos for the full
span of the chapel, they took a second look and decided to con-
struct a predella of corresponding length (i. e., extending from the
southeast to the northw^est wall). This raised the floor level at
the sanctuary end of the chapel 9 inches as indicated by the two
risers discovered in the removal of fill. Thus, the predeUa, as
latterly conceived, created a pit with the retables and reredos
assembly sunk into it by the estabhshed 9 inches. This did not
discourage the friar architects. By clever artistry the base or lower
details of these ornamental appendages, forming a colorful and
religious background for the altar, were revamped. They utilized
the large timber found in situ (behind the altar location) to mask
some lower architectural or decorative features that appeared
awkward (Figures 33, 34, 35).
This solution does not mean that all problems were then
solved. There were others, picayunish to be sure, for any alteration
work creates a chain reaction, however insignificant, going all the
way down the line. The intended elevation of the small predella
would have been about 7 inches, for any height greater than that
would have made kneeling difficult on its edge. When we come to
the final predella, we thus find the altar raised about 2 inches
above its originally intended 7 inch support. As an altar is ordi-
narily 3 feet 4 inches high, the friars may have reduced its cus-
tomary height by about an inch, not more. Then the installed
moldings and/or steps of the retables with their integrated taber-
nacle were adjusted slightly by carpentry renovation to meet the
new elevation of the altar mensa (table-like top). The altar was
made of stone or adobe and abutted the wood-frame backing. That
none of the retable-reredos assembly was made of masonry behind
the altar is determined by the uninterrupted extent of the "pit."
Now, all of this sounds intricate, but none of it was too much
of a job, and if the friar in charge did not bother about appearance
or inconvenience when confronted with the alteration of minor
detail, the changes, other than those connected with the "pit,"
could be overlooked. The early Spanish mission buildings were
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY I29
crude affairs, but their liturgical furniture and measurements,
generally, were given careful consideration within the limitations
of environment.
The very fact of the extremely low risers in the final predella
(about 4 J inches each), is substantial evidence of the necessity for
keeping the predella level down to accommodate the furnishings.
If the friars had not already built their retable-reredos "master-
piece," the two risers would not be less than 6 inches each, and
more likely 7 inches. The construction of the larger predella at a
6 or 7 inch level, using only one step, would not have given proper
emphasis to the friars' expanded scheme.
But aside from those of the predella and perhaps those for
comimunion-rail kneeling, no 17th-century churchman in New
Mexico would ever have thought of risers in his primitive mission
structure less than 7 or 8 inches in height. Customary riser heights
were 9, 10, or even 11 inches. Only where the celebrant and choir
boys knelt and where the congregation received Holy Communion
were risers less than 7 inches high normal.
I believe the wooden beams spanning the pit were in some fashion
or other connected with the anchorage of the retables and reredos.
It is my opinion that the ceilings over the Blessed Sacrament
or conventual chapel (Room 25) and the sacristy (Room 21) were
both raised to a greater height than those of the one-story rooms
surrounding the garth. A low ceiling in the chapel would not
permit adequate altar appointments nor would it be aesthetically
and religiously acceptable; the chapel was not a makeshift in-
troduction. The two rather thin walls partially bounding Room 21
belie the assumption of any increase in its ceiling height, but I
am almost sure that here too, the ceiling was raised. This would
permit clerestory lighting and satisfactory storm-water drainage
over the adjacent roofs.
ALTARS IN THE CHURCH
I have very little to say about the main altar and the two
side altars in the church. The carefully worked stone object on
the predella, judging by the field data and photographs, lacks
recognizable significance. I surmise that it had been brought or
had fallen to its present location "without benefit of clergy." It
was not a "kneeUng" stone as Hodge called it, for all kneeling was
done on the steps described above.
1^0 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
REREDOS
The design of the reredos as shown in the illustration of the
chapel in Figure 33 warrants discussion.
The design is quite original, yet inspired by a number of
Spanish reredos characterized by retahlo artistry that have come
down to us from the 15th and i6th centuries and by several in
New Mexico of i8th- and 19th-century vintage. As for the Spanish
reredos, a dozen or more of these are to be seen in the Museum of
Catalonian Primitive Art in Barcelona, all set up in place, and
similar material is found in the Provincial Museum and the College
of San Gregorio at Valladolid. In fact, Spain has no end of salvaged
old-time reredos of this type, priceless specimens of the historic
past. Mexico has a few comparable reredos, but these are widely
dispersed, for time, vandalism and Churrigueresque and Baroque
replacement have made them almost extinct.
One's first impression of the usual New Mexico reredos, dis-
tinguished by framed areas for the insertion of pictures, and hence
called retablos, is one of utter amazement. They are so closely
identified with some of those of the Iberian Peninsula in styling
as not only to make their tradition inescapable, but to make one
believe that they were actually conceived by the same craftsmen.
Yet there are here the disparities of time covering several hundreds
of years, the alienation of distance emphasized by a European
culture on a stark frontier, and the distinction between Old World
professional construction men and the friar architects unhampered
by experience, with their Spanish or Mexican pioneer and native
Indian associates. It shows how cohesive is tradition and parti-
cularly Church tradition, even in its temporal manifestations as
expressed in the arts. One must discriminate between the New
Mexico reredos I have chosen to illustrate above and to exemplify
pictorially, and those in the same region with their illiterate
entablatures, and salamonicas or heavy twisted columns. Reredos
of that kind are nothing more nor less than decadent "Spanish-
Colonial" in their make-up, reminiscent of better architecture
below the Rio Grande. Nonetheless, these, too, are of fascinating
interest because they show an amazing and unabashed blend of
what the experimental friar and his Indian and regional colleagues
in design could accomplish when they worked together.
Returning to the reconstruction of the reredos at Hawikuh,
it is assumed that the principal feature was a canvas of the Blessed
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY I3I
Virgin and Child brought from Spain or painted in Mexico. Here
we have borrowed from a painting in El Museo Diocesano at
Barcelona. Logically, one may assume that if any part of a mis-
sionary reredos like the one in our Blessed Sacrament chapel were
imported, it would be the intended piece de resistance, and it is
on this tentative inference that the illustration shows a supposedly
Iberian or Mexican Madonna with her Nifio Jesus enshrined in the
centralized location and surrounded by ecstatic angels. This, then,
would be the product of a skilled and talented artist from some
other region than that above El Paso.
Unfortunately, or fortunately, for those w^ho are emotionally
and intellectually fascinated by the art of the primitives, the
painted figures framed by the retablos, three on each side of the
major mural, may have been done by a zealous but daubing friar,
or, more probably, by one or more of the talented Zufii under the
dubious tutelage of a patient religious. These figures as delineated
were borrowed from antique New Mexico hitltos, and have been
placed in the following order: on the left or Gospel side and at
the top, San Buenaventura, and consecutively below, San Miguel
and Santo Niiio de Atocha. This latter figure can always be
identified by a pork-pie hat with a plume. On the right or Epistle
side from top to bottom, are San Jose with Child, San Ysidro
Labrador (Isidore the Husbandman, who was the precursor of
those who now employ mechanized farm implements, for he had
angels to draw his plow and sow his grain), and finally San Fran-
cisco de Asis.
It would appear obvious to anyone acquainted with Catholic
doctrine that the Franciscans at Hawikuh would have expended
even more time and care in the adornment of the reredos of the
chapel where the Blessed Sacrament was reserved, than of the
reredos in the church itself. Evidently the religious were afraid
of sacrilege, were the Blessed Sacrament reserved in the larger
sanctuary.
STAIRWAYS
Now to answer the question, "where did the stairways lead?"
Stairway No. 29 led to the choir loft, which was partially sup-
ported by the two columns in the nave. The intent of this stairway
appears certain (Figure 30; Plate 19, h).
A sketch of what seems the most logical inference from the
existing data as to the means of obtaining entrance to and exit
132 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
from the choir loft appears in Figure 21. The stairs, as conceived
here, terminate at their upper level on the floor of the balcony
over the main entry door to the church. There is no doubt about
the existence of this balcony, which was partially supported by
the two posts indicated outside the north facade of the building.
From the balcony one might have entered the choir loft via
"French doors," similar to and directly above those at the main
entrance, as suggested by the two pivot holes in the principal
entryway sill at the lower level. Perhaps one or two sill steps
existed at the upper pair of French doors, thus raising the level
of the choir loft 12 inches to 18 inches above that of the balcony.
Assuming the existence of a tower over the stairs, the bell com-
partment would have been reached, first by a ladder in the garth
leading up to the roof over Rooms 26 or 28 in the cloister, and
then by another ladder resting on this roof and reaching up to the
roof over the nave. An alternative concept of a stairway leading
up to the roof over Room 36, followed by a ladder to the bell tower
as a continuation of the stairway is possible, but not altogether
convincing. It circumvents a forthright approach in stair design
and makes difficult any simple means of entry to the choir loft.
It is true that access to the roof over Room 36 could be had
by turning the stairs eastward above the second landing, instead
of westward, but thereafter the only approach to the choir loft
would have to be over the roof of Room 23 (which was a con-
tinuation, no doubt, of the roof over Room 36), and then through
a door in the church wall giving access to the loft. Such a route
would permit the choir personnel to look into the garth where the
friars took their siestas — at times, to be sure, with relaxed in-
formality. I doubt if publicity of this sort would be condoned, and
besides, a Franciscan garth normally was considered a "conventual
enclosure." The cloister walks themselves were concealed by con-
tinuous masonry walls surrounding the garth and pierced by only
a few high windows and by one or two doorways. Hence any move-
ment in the cloisters could not be observed from the roof. None-
theless, a prospect of the garth per se would have been confined
to the religious, to male visitors, few and far between, and to the
occasional workman using the ladders to the roofs or pottering
around in the area.
The existence of a stubby "tower" or "belfry" is logical and
probable, although bell openings could have been arranged in a
crude missionlike gable above the roof of the nave. In the latter
THE MISSION CHURCH AND FRIARY I33
circumstance, the openings would have embelHshed the facade of
the church. In some of the New Mexico mission churches access
was had to the choir loft by a stairway placed underneath the loft
and thus located in the nave of the church, as at Awatovi. But
at primitive Hawikuh it would be absurd to postulate two stair-
ways in such close juxtaposition.
The problem of Stairway No. i (Figure 29), is even more
baffling than that of No. 29. One solution, at least in theory, may
be posited on the assumption of a grade surface on the south-
eastern side of the building at a higher level than the floor of
Rooms II to 16, but not as high as the existing grade. This would
permit a door to open out with its sill at the approximate terrain
surface. If this is not correct and if the present ground level is
substantially the same as it was during the Franciscan regime,
then to postulate an areaway on the exterior inclosing a platform
and steps, thus lengthening the stairway and bringing it up to
grade surface, turns out to be an unproved assumption. There is
no evidence of an areaway unearthed by the archaeologists. Any
claim that the stairway merely butted against the present south-
eastern wall in cul-de-sac fashion without any rationally recog-
nizable function is untenable. It is difficult to fathom any func-
tional need for Stairway No. i other than what has been outlined
above, but several other (if less persuasive) arguments can be
outlined.
If, originally, the exterior grade on the southeastern side of
the building was close to the level of the floor of Rooms 11 to 16
(which would make sense), no stairway would be required. Yet,
in presuming its installation, the sill of a required door would be
a number of feet above the ground. What would be the intent of
the raised door ? It would not be high enough to acquire defensive
or military value ; it would serve no delivery purpose ; why, then,
would the door have been at the apex of a stile ? This thought of
a door with its hypothetical sill way up on the wall of the building
must be tentatively discarded, but if the southeastern ground
level and the aforesaid floor of the cloister were originally on the
same approximate plane, then, more convincingly, the stairs might
have been added during a subsequent alteration program when
the exterior ground level was raised for some unexplained reason.
The stairs would then have become an essential part of the entry-
way, only to be buried later under the dirt fills shown on the
section (Figure 29), when their need ceased to exist.
134 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The question still remains whether there was an upper story
in the vicinity of Stairway No. i. There is no apparent archae-
ological evidence of a wing projecting from the southeastern ex-
terior wall of the friary and contiguous to this stairway. The
uncovering of foundations there would have indicated a con-
tinuation of the treads and risers leading to a landing and there-
upon returning to a second floor level, but lack of such remains
precludes this theory.
However, Hodge believed that a second story possibly covered
Rooms 2 A, 2B, 3 A, 3B, 4 A, 4B, and 19 and that these rooms
were served by Stairway No. i. Perhaps he was right. But, as
there are no surviving physical indications to show how Stairway
No. I could be used for the purpose, I am unable to concur with
him, unless it would be philosophically, for, to be sure, the stairs
must have served some purpose. I have only tried to find solutions
consistent with the archaeological remains. If the treads and risers,
as shown, were removed and a very, very steep stairway occupied
Room I starting with the first riser out in Room 16, a narrow
landing could be obtained at the southeastern extremity per-
mitting entries at each side into second-floor rooms without re-
course to a stairway wing projecting out from the exterior of the
friary. But that has nothing to do with the realities of the data.
If Hodge were alive, he could assist us immensely in arriving at
a conclusion.
CHAPTER III
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH
INTRODUCTION
THERE is no doubt that one of the chief aims of the excavation
of Hawikuh was to secure specimens for the Museum of
the American Indian, Heye Foundation, in accordance with
George Heye's long career as an avid collector of archaeological
and ethnological material. The expedition was an outstanding
success from this standpoint, and the Museum received over 1 200
decorated vessels and about 500 plain vessels, most of them from
Hawikuh and the others from Kechipawan. In addition, about
100 vessels from Kechipawan went to the University Museum of
Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, England, as their share
from the joint excavation of that site. Of the vessels originally
shipped to the museum in New York, all but about half a dozen
are still there; a few were sent as exchanges to the Amerind
Foundation, Dragoon, Arizona, and possibly elsewhere. (A careful
check, however, shows none sent to Gila Pueblo or the U. S.
National Museum.)
Most of the vessels excavated at Hawikuh were from graves,
and since the original field numbers are on the catalogue cards in
the Museum of the American Indian, they can be matched with
the burials and inhumations recorded in the field notes. In ad-
dition, some of the rooms excavated contained whole or broken
vessels, but the field notes are rarely specific as to their number,
position, or other details. Frequently, room and level numbers
were entered on the Museum catalogue cards, but agreement with
the field notes is far from perfect. Many broken vessels, from both
graves and rooms, were repaired and restored at the Museum with
great skill, and this probably accounts in part for the absence of
a record of them in the field notes — or such a record as "several
fragmentary vessels, including glazed ware," or 'large deposit of
pots at feet." Many of these vessels, and some that are recorded
in the field notes in more detail, have not been located in the
135
136 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Museum, probably being among those still unrestored or found to
be too incomplete for reconstruction. But in spite of the discrep-
ancies between field and Museum records, and inadequacies in the
field recording, an impressive number of pieces can unequivocally
be identified in terms of provenience; in the summer of 1958
R. B. Woodbury and N. F. S. Woodbury classified in terms of
current ceramic terminology 1541 vessels from Hawikuh at the
Museum (and another 115 from Kechipawan). Although one may
wonder how significant the acquisition of such a mass of "exhibit
material" was at the time, it unquestionably comprises a corpus
of the utmost value today. Kroeber's observation (1916, p. 21),
made just before the excavation of Hawikuh began, is pertinent:
The fine bowls, precious jewelry, and beautiful axes that al-
ready cumber our museums, will find their use; but that time
is at the end of study, when they can be placed and used with
meaning, not at the beginning, when they confuse and weary.
Hodge wrote several short accounts of the pottery from Hawi-
kuh (pp. 29-30 of "Circular Kivas Near Hawikuh, New Mexico"
[1923]; "Pottery of Hawikuh" [1924 a]; and "The Sequence of
Pottery at Hawikuh," published herein). But he had not, as far
as we can determine, begun any major study of this great col-
lection of material, although drawings had been made of the
designs of 748 pieces. These drawings are largely the work of
William Baake, whose skill as an archaeological illustrator is
unsurpassed. As far as we can judge from references to his work
in a few surviving letters, Baake drew as much of each season's
material as time permitted without too rigidly selecting or re-
jecting vessels on the basis of quality or uniqueness. Therefore,
although these drawings do not include the complete collection
of Hawikuh decorated pottery, they seem to be a representative
selection, comprising about half the total. In this volume we have
selected drawings of 525 vessels for illustration, drawings that we
can assume would have formed the basis of Hodge's report.
Because the study of the Hawikuh pottery by R. B. Wood-
bury and N. F. S. Woodbury began without any expectation that
it would form part of a larger study of Hawikuh, a brief ex-
planation of its scope and limitations is in order. In 1954 and 3955
(with the support of Columbia University's Council for Research
in the Social Sciences and Department of Anthropology, and the
cooperation of the National Park Service) the Woodburys dug
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I37
a small portion of Atsinna ruin, about 40 miles east of Hawikuh,
situated on top of Inscription Rock at El Morro National Monu-
ment, in order to obtain information on the later prehistoric oc-
cupation of the Zuni area. The Hawikuh collection at the Museum
of the American Indian, supplemented by the Heshotauthla col-
lection at Peabody Museum, Harvard University (from Hodge's
excavations for the Hemenway Expedition in 1888-1889), ap-
peared to offer numerous examples in complete form of the pot-
tery types tentatively identified in the sherd material from At-
sinna. Then, by lucky coincidence, it was found that photographic
copies of the design drawings of the Hawikuh pottery were in the
possession of Watson Smith, who had received them from Kenneth
M. Chapman in Santa Fe, who in turn had had Hodge's permission
to photograph the original drawings, in connection with studies
of pueblo pottery design. Therefore, in 1958, the Woodburys were
able to match these drawings (which were not identified as to
type, shape, color, or other features) against the specimens in the
Museum of the American Indian. Each vessel could then be
identified in terms of current typology, brief notes added on shape,
color, and other details, and provenience data added from the
Museum catalogue. Although much of the Hawikuh pottery is of
later date than the occupation of Atsinna (estimated as about
1250 to 1350), it assisted substantially in clarifying the late pre-
historic and early historic ceramic sequence for the Zuni area. It
also made possible the application of present-day terminology to
the Hawikuh pottery, supplementing Hodge's own terms. The
Woodburys' descriptions of Zuiii pottery types are published here
as an appendix, rather than delaying them for the report on
Atsinna that is still in preparation. Although this Appendix is in
no way either the work of Hodge or in a form he might have used
for reporting the Hawikuh pottery, it seems essential that present-
day terminology be applied to these specimens to facilitate their
use by other scholars. In fairness to Hodge, the reader should be
reminded that this kind of typological system and the manner of
reporting descriptive details of pottery had not been evolved at
the time of his Hawikuh work.
HODGE S TERMINOLOGY FOR THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH
From the very beginning of his excavations, Hodge observed
and recorded some of the conspicuous characteristics of the many
138 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
kinds of pottery found at Hawikuh, and in his field notes such
terms as "early polychrome," "late polychrome," "ancient glaze,"
"early glaze," and "recent glaze" are used frequently, sometimes
with a few descriptive terms added. Later, the terms "Glaze I,"
"Glaze II," "Polychrome I," and "Polychrome 11" began to be
used, in addition. Unfortunately, the field notes include no sys-
tematic statements on pottery types or even definitions of the
terms used. Hodge's first general accounts of the excavations,
published in 19 18, mention briefly the changes that occurred from
earlier to later kinds of pottery, but it was not until 1923, when
the report on the circular kivas near Hawikuh was published, that
a sequence was clearly defined.
Although the descriptions in this 1923 report are brief, they
(and the accompanjdng illustrations) make it possible to identify
his "types" in modern terms and determine that the sequence of
changes he outlined was essentially correct. In Hodge's summary
(1922, p. 29) which follows we have added in brackets the current
typological equivalents of his terms, and have deleted his ref-
erences to the illustrations accompanying his article.
To summarize for our present purpose, the pottery found
at Hawikuh and in its vicinity consists of the following gen-
eral period types :
A. Black-on-gray; black-on-red; finely corrugated. Pre-
Hawikuh period.
B. Black or green glaze on red or orange red [Heshota-
uthla Black-on-red and Polychrome]. Corrugated much cruder.
Earliest Hawikuh (prehistoric).
C. Black, green, or purplish glaze on white or creamy slip
[Kwakina Polychrome and probably also Pinnawa Glaze-on-
white]. Early Hawikuh (prehistoric).
D. Black or green glaze on white or cream, with non-glaze
colors introduced. This was the first step toward a pure mat
polychrome [Kechipawan Polychrome and Pinnawa Red-on-
white]. Prehistoric.
E. Polychrome. Various colors were used and life-forms
became much more common. The glaze decoration had dis-
appeared. The range of decorative designs indicates two pe-
riods, one merging into the other, the first prehistoric, the
second prehistoric but extending into the historic period.
[Matsaki Polychrome; the later "period," for which Reed has
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 1 39
suggested the name "Concepcion Polychrome" cannot, on the
evidence so far available, be satisfactorily distinguished from
the earlier].
F. Recent glaze. The glaze, especially black, and green of
varying shades, was revived, but the glaze was crudely applied
[Hawikuh Polychrome]. This style of ornamentation seems to
have been gradually superseding the polychrome when Hawi-
kuh was abandoned. (Present Zuiii potters deny all knowledge
of the method of producing the glaze.)
The same sequence was described with more descriptive detail
in "Pottery of Hawikuh" (1924a), but instead of the types having
identifying letters A through F they were numbered I through IX,
with "intrusive types" A and B added ("Gila Ware" and "Sikyatki
Ware"). These eleven categories can be identified in current ter-
minology as follows :
I. Several Pueblo IH black-on-whites and black-on-reds.
II. Heshotauthla Polychrome and Heshotauthla Black-on-red.
III. Kwakina Polychrome and Pinnawa Glaze-on-white.
IV. Kechipawan Polychrome.
V. An unnamed red-on-buff pottery, described and illustrated
by Bushnell (1955) on the basis of Kechipawan specimens; it has
the appearance of marking the transition from Kechipawan to
Matsaki Polychrome.
VI. Matsaki Polychrome.
VII. Probably the pottery for which Reed suggested the name
Concepcion Polychrome. Hodge says in this 1924 report (p. 12),
"There is little difference between this type and the last, which
may be distinguished as late and early polychrome respectively.
The vessels are larger and thicker, the paste more durable; both
the patterns and the colors are bolder, and on the whole the
former are more geometric ; the colors lack the softness and there-
fore the esthetic quality of Type VI." Unfortunately, Hodge also
used the term "early polychrome" for Kechipawan Polychrome,
both in "The Plaza Trench and its Disclosures," and in his field
notes.
VIII. Hawikuh Polychrome.
IX. Hawikuh Glaze-on-Red.
A. Gila Polychrome (including Tonto Polychrome).
B. Several types imported from the Hopi area, including Jed-
dito Black-on-yeUow and Sikyatki Polychrome. Although Hodge
140 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
was familiar with Fewkes' excavations at the Hopi site of Sikyatki,
and refers to it as the basis of his identification of certain vessels
as imports from the Hopi country, there are several instances in
his field notes where he identifies as "Sikyatki" vessels that the
1958 examination of the collection showed to be Matsaki Poly-
chrome, a local Zuiii pottery with close superficial similarities to
Sikyatki Polychrome. Therefore, it is impossible to be sure that
each time he uses the term "Sikyatki" the piece in question is
actually of Hopi origin.
In "Sequence of Pottery at Hawikuh" (published in this vol-
ume) Plodge described the pottery in terms very similar to those
used in "Pottery of Hawikuh" but classified them as types I
through V, which can be identified thus :
I. Heshotauthla Polychrome and Heshotauthla Black-on-red.
n. Kwakina Polychrome and Pinnawa Glaze-on-white.
in. Kechipawan Polychrome.
IV. Matsaki Polychrome.
V. Hawikuh Polychrome.
Finally, there is the terminology that Hodge devised for his
paper "The Plaza Trench and its Disclosures" (published herein).
In his table of sherd counts he uses :
Glaze I, II, III, and IV.
Early and Late Polychrome. (In an earlier version of the
table he included some of these sherds in a Transitional Poly-
chrome, but abandoned this distinction in the later version.)
"Sikyatki."
Gila.
Corrugated.
Black-on- white and Black-on-red.
In his text he refers to Glaze IV as Recent Glaze, and uses Early
Glaze to include Glazes I and II and possibly III. Our identi-
fication of these "types" is given in the note introducing this table.
In conclusion, then, it can be said that although Hodge never
settled on a single system for naming or numbering the pottery
types he distinguished at Hawikuh, and used some terms am-
biguously or changed their meaning in the course of his work,
nevertheless, his terms are usually understandable when con-
sidered in context. The sequence he defined early in his work has
proved correct, and he seems to have clearly recognized both the
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I4I
need to classify the vast variety and range of sherds and vessels
into a conveniently small number of types, and the difficulties of
drawing boundaries across essentially continuing changes in dec-
orative treatment. The two papers which follow illustrate well his
approach to ceramic problems and contain many penetrating
comments on the contribution that the sequence of pottery styles
could make to a better understanding of the history of Hawikuh's
occupation.
Sequence of Pottery at Hawikuh
hy
Frederick W. Hodge
[Editors' note: This paper, written as an address to the Amer-
ican Ethnological Society, includes reference to the stratigraphic
trench dug during the final season, and therefore could not have
been written earlier than the latter part of 1923. As far as we can
determine it has not previously been published, although of course
the ceramic sequence it discusses is the same in most details as
that reported by Hodge in papers published in 1923 and 1924. The
sherd counts mentioned in the text here do not entirely agree with
those given in "The Plaza Trench and its Disclosures" as pub-
lished here; they agree somewhat better, but not perfectly, with
an earlier version of that manuscript and its table, in which
smaller totals occur for many of the counts. The differences do
not affect the overall trends in frequency of pottery types nor
Hodge's interpretations drawn from these trends.
It is interesting that in his final year of work at Hawikuh
Hodge excavated this enormous stratigraphic trench, a departure
from his field techniques of the previous seasons. In 1923, a strat-
igraphic excavation, aimed at securing sherds rather than burials,
museum specimens, or architectural information, was still rela-
tively new in Southwestern archaeology. Kidder at Pecos and
Nelson in the Galisteo sites were perhaps the sources of Hodge's
inspiration. Spier and Nelson had dug stratigraphic tests at several
sites in the Zufii area in 1916, to supplement their reconnaissance,
but these were of extremely limited extent. Although immediately
reported orally to his anthropological colleagues, as this paper
indicates, Hodge's stratigraphic work was not described in any
detail in his various published accounts of the excavations.]
142 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
It is hardly necessary to inform the members of the American
Ethnological Society that Hawikuh was one of the famed Seven
Cities of Cibola of the Zufii Indians, and that it is situated twelve
miles southwest of the present pueblo of Zufii in western central
New Mexico.
When excavations were initiated in 1917 by the Museum of
the American Indian, Heye Foundation, under the patronage of
Harmon W. Hendricks, Esq., a trustee, one of the noteworthy
features of the ruin was the quantity of potsherds scattered over
its surface, representing various types that seemed to have little
relationship. As the cemeteries in the great refuse deposits were
gradually uncovered, considerable light was shed on the sequence
of these pottery types by reason of their association or nonasso-
ciation with objects of European origin, which in turn indicated
several periods of burial. Then the uncovering of the walls of the
houses adduced additional testimony as to the pottery sequence,
for the relative age of the dwellings, as exhibited both by the
character of the masonry, and by the finding or the total lack of
objects of Spanish provenience therein, became evident, as likewise
did the sequence of the pottery found among their debris or
accompanying the burials beneath the floors.
The relations between the structural features of the houses
and the types of burials associated with them, became more and
more apparent as the investigation progressed. For example, it
was found that a certain excellent red ware with green or black
glaze decoration was characteristic of the earliest Hawikuh cul-
ture ; that similar vessels, but with white slip and sometimes with
a matt red introduced with the glazed ornamentation were present
only in older house refuse; and that a fine, well-executed and
beautifully-toned polychrome was commonly associated with early
inhumations both in the cemeteries and in the houses, as well as
with the dead whose remains had been cremated. The custom of
cremation had come to an end soon after the arrival of the Span-
iards, for burning of the dead is mentioned by chroniclers of the
Coronado expedition of 1540-1542; indeed, the evidence points
very strongly to the cessation of the custom (of the probable
origin of which we will speak later) at the instance of the Fran-
ciscans, who first settled at Hawikuh as late as 1629, ninety
years after Coronado. Spanish objects have not been found
with cremated human remains, nor with the earliest burials
referred to.
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I43
To substantiate the observations made from the excavations
in the graves and in the dwelHngs, conclusive as they seemed,
what proved to be an important test was the digging of a trench
entirely across the large central plaza of Hawikuh, approximately
east-west, from one late house-group to another. This trench was
II feet in width, and was carried to a depth of 15 feet. From about
its center westward, at the bottom, undisturbed clay and bed-rock
were encountered, while eastward were the walls of early aban-
doned dwellings and of what may have been part of a kiva.
We will not do violence to scientific accuracy by assuming
that the refuse which had accumulated in the plaza of Hawikuh
was of fairly gradual and even growth; indeed, the stratification
of the refuse indicated such evenness in the building-up of the
plaza level as to show practically no disturbance by pitting or
otherwise during the period of gradual filling; therefore, the ex-
cavation, foot by foot, from top to bottom, of a trench of such
width was likely to reveal sherds of pottery from the latest to the
earliest period, and in relative order. Such proved to be the case.
We need not present, at this time, a detailed account of the
relative abundance or the scarcity of the various types of pottery,
as illustrated by the thousands of fragments encountered in the
digging of the great trench, but they revealed to a nicety the same
conditions with respect to sequence as had already been observed
in regard to the graves and the dwellings. For example, in the
Second Level of the trench, the sherds that unquestionably be-
longed to the type which we may designate as recent glaze (the
type abundantly in use at the time of the abandonment of Hawikuh
in 1670), were 64% of the whole, while in the succeeding levels
(the Third to the Eighth) they numbered respectively 64%, 20%,
5%, 7|%, and nearly 6%. In the Eighth Level only six sherds out
of a total of 1641 were of recent glaze, while there were 1480 of
polychrome, of which fully 90% were recent. In the Tenth Level
the recent-glaze fragments had disappeared. We might continue
to enumerate the relative proportions of the pottery types rep-
resented in the respective levels of the trench, were it necessary at
this time. Suffice it to say that the number of ancient glaze-on-red
sherds was insignificant until the Fifth Level was reached, where
seven out of a total of 765 sherds were recovered, a number that
increased gradually, until at the Tenth Level this type was rep-
resented by 73 sherds, at the Eleventh Level by 112, at the
Twelfth Level, by 192, at the 13th level by 251, at the Fourteenth
144 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Level by 256, showing the progressive increase the farther back
in time that we went. The same relative proportions in the other
types of pottery were observed.
A highly significant fact in connection with the building up
of the plaza floor, was the finding, in every foot-level of refuse,
down to 15 feet, of objects of Spanish introduction, such as iron,
fragments of china, and the like. Now, we may suppose that such
objects found their way to Hawikuh not through the earliest
explorers who chanced to pass through, but were brought by the
Franciscans, who established their mission at the pueblo in 1629.
If this were the case, and there is every reason for supposing so,
then it may be assumed that the recent glaze pottery was in-
troduced about the middle of the mission period, or about 1650,
Hawikuh having been abandoned twenty years later.
It has been mentioned that the custom of cremating the dead
was practised when the first Spaniards arrived among the Zufiis
in 1540. The year before, Hawikuh had been seen from an adjacent
height by Fray Marcos de Niza, just after the killing of his Negro
companion Estevanico. Accompanying the Negro were some na-
tives of the Gila region of southern Arizona, evidently Pima, or,
at least, representatives of a tribe of the Piman stock. On inquiry
by Fray Marcos as to how and by what means they acquired
certain hides and turquoises, "They told me," says the friar, "by
their service, and by the sweat of their brows, and that they went
unto the first city [Hawikuh] of the province which is called Cibola,
and that they served them in tilling the ground, and in other
businesses, and that they gave them hides of oxen [bison], which
they have in those places, and turquoises for their service."
It is well known that the Piman tribes of southern Arizona
anciently practiced cremation of their dead, and also buried, with-
out cremation, in their dwellings. Now, both mortuary customs
were common to Hawikuh, as the excavations prove, and certainly
cremation was practiced when the Spaniards first arrived. In
seeking the origin of cremation by the ancient Zufiis, or at least
by those of Hawikuh, the reference by Fray Marcos to the ex-
tended visits of the Gila Valley people to Hawikuh became espec-
ially significant when it was found that among the vessels con-
taining incinerated remains, those of typical Gila ware were not
uncommon. Early glaze on white, the same ware but with a matt
red introduced, and early polychrome, were similarly employed
as receptacles for the bones of the dead, which had been offered on
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I45
the funeral pyre; but late polychrome and recent-glaze vessels
were never so used. In other words, during the period when crema-
tion was practiced, the types of pottery made after the green or
black glaze on red, and until the introduction of the late poly-
chrome and recent glaze, were used as receptacles for the inciner-
ated bones of the dead.
We need look no farther than the influence of the Franciscans
for the cause of the cessation of this practice, which must have
taken place soon after the mission at Hawikuh was founded, as
shown by the occurrence of cremated remains in early Hawikuh
and Gila vessels in the lowest levels of the great trench, and by
the increasing occurrence of sherds of Gila pottery from the Ninth
Level (in which there were ten sherds out of a total of 1267, or
less than eight-tenths of one percent) to the Fourteenth Level
(in which the proportion was 183 to 1109, or sixteen percent).
Naturally the question arises why the visits of the Gila Valley
people to Hawikuh ceased after the coming of the Spaniards and
before cremation came to an end at that pueblo, for, except in the
shape of occasional stray sherds, Gila pottery was not found in
association with the late graves or in the refuse of the later houses
of the settlement. I have shown elsewhere^ that the Apache in all
probability did not make their appearance in southern Arizona
until after the coming of the Spaniards, hence after it became the
practice of the Gila Valley natives to make their periodic visits to
Hawikuh to work in the fields in exchange for hides and turquoise.
We need perhaps look no farther for the cause of the interruption
of these Pima visits — in any event, they ceased for one reason
or another, evidently in the first half of the seventeenth century,
and Hawikuh art was no longer affected by the pottery imposed
on them by these intrusive people.
With the evidence so briefly summarized, supported by other
testimony which need not be detailed here, we have the following
distinct classes of pottery from Hawikuh, commencing with the
earliest :
L Black or green glaze on red or some value of red, as orange
or brownish. Ornamentation always geometric, the fret common.
The ware is excellent, the form symmetrical. The vessels of this
type are almost all bowls, jars being very scarce. On the outside
^ [Editors' note: This is presumably his article "The early Navajo and
Apache," American Anthropologist, old series, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 223-240,
1895.]
146 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
of the bowls, just beneath the rim, is almost invariably a simple
geometric pattern in matt white. Toward the close of the period
of manufacture of this type of pottery, instead of the exterior
motive in matt white, a pattern, or a few lines, are applied in the
same glaze as ornamented the inside of the bowls, and in rare
examples the outer glaze was combined with matt white; but
these examples may be regarded as the result of individual vagary
— a tendency to break away from the established form of orna-
mentation from the time Hawikuh was founded. Fairly good
corrugated or semi-corrugated cooking- jars were made during this
early period. The decorated pottery of this period seems to have
been derived from that of vessels, chiefly bowls, painted in matt
black, but also with matt white or yellow ornamentation on the
outside. Such pottery is pre-Hawikuh, however, and is charac-
teristic of certain adjacent sites in which black-and-white and
excellent corrugated wares are more abundant.
From the relative scarcity of pottery of this earliest glaze
type, and the limited number of old houses and graves in which
it has been found, it is likely that Hawikuh was a rather insignif-
icant pueblo during the period in which it was made. Like those
of other ancient wares, the sherds belonging to this type, from the
great trench, were practically absent from the upper foot-levels.
From the Fifth Level there were only seven in a total of 765 sherds ;
from the Eighth there were twenty-six in a total of 1643 ; but the
number increased from forty-two sherds in the Ninth Level to
256, or twenty-three percent of the whole number of fragments in
the Fourteenth Level.
Especially in the Fourteenth Level, where forty-nine specimens
were recovered, but decreasing sharply in the levels immediately
above, until in the Tenth only five examples were found, was the
usual glaze-on-red with matt white introduced in connection
therewith — a combination of the inside glaze and the outside
white of bowls, a forward step in pottery ornamentation applied
also to jars, but in very limited number.
IL Hawikuh potters now introduced a white slip on their
vessels, sometimes only inside the bowls, in which cases the outside
is red or reddish as before, with the usual simple matt white
motive just below the outer rim. The green or black glaze was
retained for the ornamentation, producing a striking contrast.
Probably due to chemical change in the pigment on firing the
vessel, the glaze sometimes became purplish, producing a very
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 147
effective and unusual result. When the white slip was applied both
inside and outside the bowls of this type, the opportunity to
embellish the exterior with the customary white pattern became
lost, hence it was necessary to produce that pattern in the glaze
employed in the inner decoration. This type of earthenware, like
that of its immediate predecessor (the glaze on red), was practi-
cally absent from the upper foot-levels of the trench, but its sherds
increased in abundance downward from the Seventh Level, in
which thirteen were found, forty- six in the Ninth, eighty-four in
the Eleventh, 251 in the Thirteenth. In the Fourteenth Level
there were only 109, as compared with the 256 fragments of glaze
on red, hence it is likely that the white-slip ware had not been
manufactured very long before the filling of the plaza to this
level. It will be recalled that objects of Spanish introduction were
present at this point. Indeed, parts of an all-over green-glaze
Spanish jar were found as deep as the Fifteenth Level.
III. The third type of pottery varies so slightly from Type II
that it may be regarded as a sub-type of the latter. The difference
in the two, however, although technically slight, is of importance,
for in Type III, we find the very beginning of the introduction of
polychrome pottery, in that, combined with the glaze decoration
last described, a matt red was introduced. That this form of
embellishment came later than that with the glaze alone on
the white slip is obvious, even if the relative abundance of
sherds of both kinds at certain levels did not give support. The
period of greatest abundance of sherds of this type was when
the plaza was in process of filling from the Thirteenth to the
Ninth levels.
IV. An important change now took place in Hawikuh pottery,
both in its ornamentation, and in the paste of which it was mod-
eled. The ware was thin and friable, as a rule, not nearly so
compact as that of the vessels of the preceding types. Jars became
more abundant. The characteristic feature was the entire aban-
donment of glaze, and the retention of the matt red, usually more
or less pinkish, either on the white slip or on a dirty cream or
yellowish. This is the first true polychrome pottery of Hawikuh,
if we may stretch our terminology to cover a definite type orna-
mented with a single matt color on a slip of another tone. The
decoration is always very simple, and its color sometimes as
elusive as the ware is fragile. White was sometimes combined with
the red in producing the decoration.
148 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
With this beginning, true polychrome came into being at
Hawikuh, the colors usually being strikingly effective, and the
designs, rather conventional at first, becoming elaborated, as time
went on, into life forms, birds and feathers being the favorite
motives. A few mammal and reptile figures appear.
So gradual was the development of the polychrome pottery
from the earliest to the latest that it is not always easy to deter-
mine the relative periods. From the time of its inception until the
introduction of the recent glaze, it was by far the favored pottery
of Hawikuh. But styles changed at Hawikuh, as elsewhere, and
late in the history of that pueblo, say about 1650, the polychrome
commenced to be superseded by the new glaze, which forms —
V. Had Hawikuh not been abandoned in 1670, it is not im-
probable that the recent glaze earthenware would have replaced
the polychrome. Whereas as late as the Fourth Level of the trench,
polychrome ware was represented by two-thirds of the total sherds,
in the Third Level it formed only 37 % of the whole number, while
the recent glaze had advanced to 47% of the total; and in the
Second Level the polychrome had declined to 23%, while the
recent glaze had increased to nearly 65%.
It has already been mentioned that all the evidence points
to the revival of glaze ornamentation after the coming of the
missionaries in 1629, ^^^ that it was practically unknown at the
time the plaza fill had reached to half its ultimate depth, or, say
about the middle of the mission period. It was found perhaps
more abundantly in association with graves containing Spanish
objects than even the late polychrome, and it was certainly most
abundant in the houses from whose refuse articles of European
origin were recovered.
Indeed, from the presence of recent-glaze sherds in quantity,
it was possible to determine, almost without failure, at the be-
ginning of the excavation of a room, whether Spanish articles
were likely to be encountered. The later the room, the greater the
proportion of recent-glaze sherds in comparison with the late
polychrome. We may mention here that what in all probability
was the baptismal bowl in the Hawikuh mission, was of this type.
It certainly seems as if the revival of the glaze decoration had been
due to missionary influence, at least to some extent.
The observations made during the progress of the trench and
the occurrence of the successive pottery types therein have not
yet been fully correlated with those made in connection with the
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I49
houses and the burials, hence the conclusions here presented, aside
from those respecting the main classification, must be regarded as
more or less tentative.
Mention has been made of the occurrence of vessels and sherds
from the Gila country of southern Arizona. There are other in-
trusive classes of pottery at Hawikuh, among which may specif-
ically be mentioned that known generally as Sikyatki ware, from
the Hopi ruin of that name, excavated a number of years ago by
Dr. Fewkes. At no Pueblo site did the potter's art reach a higher
degree of excellence in form, decoration, color, and paste, than at
Sikyatki. In the trench the occurrence of this type of ware was
fairly constant, the fragments numbering, respectively, from the
Second Level to the Sixth, 15, 20, 18, 16, 16; from the Seventh to
the Thirteenth, 45, 36, 14, 32, 31, 28, 14, 5, suggesting that this
ware reached the climax of its use at Hawikuh from before the
middle to the middle of the historical period. But Sikyatki, from
all the evidences, was a prehistoric pueblo, built by the Asa people,
who, in earlier years had settled at Hawikuh, and on joining the
Hopi, left behind some of their number who became the Aiaho
clan of Zuni, now practically extinct. That those who remained at
Hawikuh after the main body moved on to Hopiland continued to
manufacture, at least for a time, the kind of pottery that they
had developed in their original home in the Rio Grande valley, is
more than probable ; but the recovered sherds are so relatively few
that little can be said regarding the period of introduction and use
until further study is made of the associations of the pottery of
this type found in the houses and the graves. A rather favorite
form of pottery in this ware is a platter, much like a soup-plate,
which was crudely imitated in typical Hawikuh style. Some Spanish
platters of exactly the same shape found at Hav/ikuh may have in-
spired the making of utensils of this form at a relatively late date.
The excavation of the great trench not only fully verified the
sequence of the Hawikuh earthenware as determined by the study
of the vessels and sherds from the dwellings and the graves, but
it afforded information on the age of Hawikuh. There is reason
to believe that the Hawikuh site was abandoned about the close
of the period of the white-slip pottery, or at any rate during the
time represented by the earliest polychrome, if we may rely on the
substantial evidence that need not be presented here aside from
mentioning the many houses destroyed by fire in early days and
the much later building, with inferior masonry, of dwellings above
150 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
them, often regardless of the older walls beneath. Probably on
account of earlier raids by a predatory tribe, the knoll on which
Hawikuh was built, was gradually increased in height, as shown
by the great trench, and by the filling of the older houses, evi-
dently to make the village less vulnerable, until the floor level of
the settlement was raised i6 to 19 feet. Much of this fiUing was
done in comparatively late times ; indeed, it has been shown that
practically the entire plaza fill, judging by the occurrence of
Spanish articles almost to its very base, accumulated within the
historic period, consequently Hawikuh could not long have been
occupied before the coming of the Spaniards prior to the middle
of the sixteenth century.
The Plaza Trench and its Disclosures
by
Frederick W. Hodge
[Editors note: This is the later of two versions of this manu-
script, the earlier one having some pages in longhand that are
typed in the later. However, this later version was marked in
Hodge's hand "To be revised,'' and it will be noted that it stops
abruptly, as though some additional paragraphs were to be added.
Neither such additions nor a final version were found among the
material left by Hodge.
In addition to the table reproduced here from what appears
to be the latest and most complete of three pencilled versions,
Hodge had sketched out a line graph in which a curve was drawn
for each of eight pottery types to represent its abundance at each
level. It has not been redrawn and reproduced here, because the
numerous small percentages make such a line graph difficult to
present clearly, with its crowded and overlapping lines. Instead,
we have presented the same percentages in a bar graph (Fig. 36),
which clearly shows the increasing and decreasing abundance of
the successive pottery types. This helps confirm the validity of
his typological distinctions and chronological inferences, with the
exception of the material he grouped as "Sikyatki" and the
combination category of "Black-on-white and Black-on-red."]
Evidence having been afforded that a considerable hiatus had
existed in the occupancy of Hawikuh between the period of its
establishment and the time when its latest houses were buUt,
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I5I
these results were given further test by sinking a trench through
the main plaza from the east wall of Room 281 to the west wall
of Room 321. The outcome was satisfactory, as it confirmed in
large measure the observations made in uncovering the houses and
in opening the many graves. The trench extended for a length of
75', was 11' in width, and reached a depth of 15', where undisturbed
earth and rock were encountered. The bottom of the trench was
the summit of the low knoll when the first houses were erected
thereon. About 458 cubic yards of fill were removed by the ex-
cavation.
From excavation conducted in the northern, eastern and
western slopes of the pueblo, where the earliest Hawikuh habita-
tions were uncovered beneath many feet of refuse and sand-drift,
and which in each instance extended beneath the later village,
the conditions indicated that in all probability the main plaza had
been raised gradually during the later development of Hawikuh,
and while it was expected that at about the depth finally reached
by the trench the remains of early houses continuous with those
beneath the slopes referred to would be found, the discovery of
the kiva was largely a surprise.
The trench was sunk a foot at a time throughout its length
and width, for while it was expected that the gradual elevation of
the plaza by deposits of house refuse and sand would have resulted
in a similarly gradual occurrence of pottery fragments, any error
would be largely eliminated owing to the considerable depth of
the trench.
In recording the following results, tiny potsherds not identi-
fiable as to type, as well as fragments of plain cooking-pots such
as were used throughout the entire history of Hawikuh, were not
included, as they could contribute nothing toward definite con-
clusions. Moreover, as is well known, corrugation sometimes cov-
ered only a part of cooking vessels, consequently by including
plain cooking-pot sherds it would not be known whether they
were fragments of partly corrugated ware and therefore would be
misleading.
First Level
As the first foot removed represented little more than slicing
off the surface of almost clear sand and decayed vegetation which
had been trampled by hoofed animals for very many years and
therefore was more or less churned, no accurate account of the
152 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
potsherds was made. Indeed the result would have been no more
instructive than if the fragments had been gathered from the
surface. As we learned, these would have been of little value, for
while surface gatherings revealed all the kinds of pottery produced
at Hawikuh, they included also intrusive earthenware; nor could
such gatherings tell anything of the interrelations of the several
types, or, except from knowledge gained at other sites, much of
their chronological sequence. By picking from the surface sherds
of black-on- white and red-on-white wares, for example, in respect-
able numbers, one might suppose that those types of pottery had
been manufactured at Hawikuh, whereas such was not the case,
as excavation in the houses proved. By the same token it might
have been conjectured that similar conditions prevailed at Kechi-
pauan, the sister pueblo on an adjacent mesa, where black-on-
white and black-on-red wares also were scattered over the surface
with sherds of every other Zufii variety made before the close of
the 17th century. The contrary, however, was true, for Kechipauan
was built on the remains of a much older pueblo at which black-
on-white and black-on-red pottery was fabricated. Conclusions
based on surface finds alone may therefore be far from trust-
worthy.
Sherds from the First Level were comparatively few. The
larger number, by far, were of recent glaze ; there were only a few
of late polychrome and a few of "Sikyatki." Among the last were
part of a platter and a portion of a handled cup; a fragment of
another platter was of recent glaze. As mentioned, these are of no
practical significance.
Second Level
This foot of deposit consisted of sand with a sprinkling of ash
and charcoal. The sherds were :
Type Number Percent^
Recent glaze
119
64
Late polychrome
44
23
"Sikyatki"
15
8
Black-on-white
n
4
Black-on-red
Total 185
1 Fractions not included.
2 As mentioned above, these two varieties were intrusive.
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I53
Third Level
This part of the deposit was of the same general composition
as the second, except that the sand and ash were in more clearly
defined strata, and there were a few small pockets of refuse. The
sherds :
Type Niimber Percent
Recent glaze 165 50
Late polychrome 130 39
"Sikyatki" 20 6
Pre-Hawikuh 17 5
Total 332
Fourth Level
The strata of sand and of sand and ash were better defined,
and ash-pockets appeared. Against and partly under the west wall
of Room 321 was an ash-deposit covering a circular area of about
i' 8", the remains of a fire kindled on the spot. The sherds were
as follows :
Type Number Percent
Late polychrome
Recent glaze
"Sikyatki"
Pre-Hawikuh
Total 303
Fifth Level
The plaza fill was of the same general character as that of
the Fourth Level. A firepit {a) with hard-baked sides, 6" by yy
in diameter and 9 J" deep, containing burnt grass-like material,
was revealed. Another well-defined firepit (&), approximately 8"
in diameter and 3I" deep, was 7' 9" southeast of a, measured from
center to center. A rude stone-rimmed fireplace, its northwest
stone missing, the structure trending northwest-southeast, was
practically in line from the northeast corner of the kiva to the
buttress-like wall projecting from Room 321 and 23' from the
latter. The fireplace measured ii|" n.w-s.e. by 4I" n.e-s.w., by
5|" deep. Its bottom was of earth.
^ Including parts of at least two platters.
202
66
60
20
l83
6
23
7
154 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The occurrence of the fireplace and the firepits would seem to
have marked the plaza level at one time — a time when a decided
change in the character of the pottery took place.
The base of the west wall of Room 321 was exposed at a depth
of 4' 5" below the surface, showing that the upper part of this
dwelling had been erected after the kiva was abandoned.
Sherds consisted of the following, in addition to which were
three plain crude toy vessels :
Type Number Percent
Late polychrome
662
86
Recent glaze
39
5
"Sikyatki"
16
2.1
Early polychrome
10
1.3
Glaze I
7
0.9
Glaze II
12
1.6
Black-on-white
i)
Black-on-red
1-7
Corrugated
3
0.4
Total
762
Sixth Level
It was at this depth that the corner of the coping of the kiva
roof was encountered. In the recess formed by Rooms 243, 281,
and 309, at the western end of the trench,^ a well-trampled plaza
floor, 5' 8" below the surface (i.e., below the top of the house
walls), was uncovered, indicating its level after the abandonment
of the kiva and the filling of the plaza to the top of the kiva
coping. This was further shown by the fact that although the
northwest corner of the recess was blackened by a fire that had
been kindled there, the smudging did not reach below the plaza.
The foundations of Rooms 281 and 309 extended 10" below this
plaza floor (see Seventh Level). Elsewhere throughout the trench
at this level the plaza was not apparent.
The fill did not differ materially from that of the last level,
but there were neither firepits nor fireplace.
From the surface to this depth the artifacts, aside from pot-
sherds, were sparse and of the most ordinary kind, such as were
* Before excavation this recess was believed to have been a room and
was numbered 307.
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I55
found in large numbers throughout the Hawikuh refuse-heaps and
in the dwellings. As expected, a few stray objects of European origin,
especially bits of iron, were encountered in each foot of the deposit.
The objects, aside from pottery, found in the Sixth Level,
generally characteristic of those in the upper strata, were :
Bone weaving implements, 3
Bone awl
Spatulate bone awl
Bone tube
Chipped stone knives, 2
Abraded pottery loop-handle
Earthenware pipe
Small spherical stone hollowed like a paint mortar
Grooved stone maul
Cut antler
Toy bowl
In addition to the above there were also found two iron nails,
a nondescript piece of iron, and a piece of copper.
The pottery was as follows :
Type Number Percent
Late polychrome
511
82
Recent glaze
45
7
"Sikyatki"
16
2.5
Glaze I
.?!
Glaze II
3-5
Early polychrome
5
0.8
Black-on-red
13/
Black-on-white
3.5
Corrugated
2
0.3
Total 623
Seventh Level
The conditions now revealed were highly interesting, at the
western end of the trench, for the floor of the plaza as it evidently
existed at the time the kiva w^as abandoned was reached. It was
found that the plaza sloped upward toward the north wall of the
kiva for the evident purpose of facilitating drainage away from it.
Although the plaza adjacent to the other sides of the kiva was not
exposed by excavation, in all probability it sloped away from the
156 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
kiva for the same reason. It will be recalled that the roof-beams
of the kiva had been placed with their butt-ends resting on the
east wall, seemingly for the purpose of draining the roof toward
the west, where the downward slope of the knoll commenced.
Further reference to the floor of the plaza at this point will be
made in discussing the Eighth Level.
As we have seen, at a depth of 6' 6" the bottom of the north
wall of Room 309 and of the east wall of Room 281 was reached,
indicating that these houses were built at about the time the plaza
had attained our Sixth Level ; in other words, after the abandon-
ment of the kiva and the filling of the plaza to the top of the kiva
coping as revealed at the level mentioned.
The sections of the plaza deposit now exposed indicated that
as the excavation continued the ash and charcoal became more and
the sand less abundant, while the number of small stones increased.
Tiny ash-pits were numerous. It was also apparent that when the
kiva was abandoned and the plaza adjacent to it was used as a
dump, ashes and other refuse were deposited in considerable heaps,
as if by a deliberate effort to raise the plaza to the point described
under the Sixth Level, or to the top of the kiva coping, by bringing
material from the refuse-heaps. The fill immediately west of the
kiva was irregular, where the undulating strata of ash and other
refuse commenced at the Seventh Level and continued upward to
the Fifth Level.
The dip of the fill adjacent to the kiva in every direction was
toward that structure, for the obvious reason that the chamber
itself had not been deliberately filled after it fell into disuse, hence
the refuse that accumulated above it gradually settled into the
kiva when its roof decayed and some of its walls collapsed, creating
a kind of crater into which the surrounding fill drifted.
Objects of Spanish provenience found within the Seventh
Level consisted of fragments of crockery, an iron nail, and a piece
of worked copper. Native artifacts included the following:
Large plain cooking-pot, inverted^
Bone knife
^ The occurrence of an entire vessel, not a mortuary accompaniment,
in the fill suggests that it may have been there placed when a large quantity
of refuse was deposited on the heap at one time; otherwise it would be
difficult to imagine why it was not entirely demolished. [Editors' note'. A
slip of paper found with this manuscript also refers to this vessel; Hodge
had written: "Sacrificial dep., 7th level, indicating sacrifice when long
occupied plaza was filled up. Whole inverted cooking pot."]
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH I57
Bone punches, 2
Large stone mortar
Bone awls, 4
Sherds with ground edges, 2
Stone shaft-smoother
Bone weaving tools, 3
Grooved stone axe
Deer rib with notched edge
Lanceolate blade (found near kiva)
Green paint, worn by grinding
At a point i' 6" from the outer northeast corner of Room 281
was found a deposit of unfired red-clay forms, some cubical,
others cylindrical, each containing one or more irregular holes in
which cuttings from various trees and plants had been inserted.
With these had been planted prayer-sticks, verj^ small fragments
of which remained; likewise numerous small shapeless sticks. The
clay forms were so damp and so crushed together as to give the
appearance of having been thrown rather than carefully placed.
This deposit and its probable significance will be alluded to later.
The potsherds w^ere numerous and comprised the following:
Type Number Percent
Late polychrome®
"Sikyatki"
Early polychrome
Recent glaze
Glaze I
Glaze II
Black-on-white
Black-on-red
Corrugated
Total 1280
^ While not classifiable as early polychrome, many of these sherds from
the eastern half of the Seventh Level seemed to be older than those of the
western half, yellow and orange slip being common. The sherds from the
eastern part were also of vessels that evidently had been long in use, as
they were worn exceptionally smooth. The only way in which this difference
can be accounted for is b}^ the assumption that in raising the plaza floor
from the Seventh to the Sixth Level filling materials were brought from
two or more convenient refuse heaps.
' One of these sherds is painted with the figure of a mask.
^ The occurrence of these was the opposite of that of the recent-glaze
III6
87
45'
3-5
31^
2.4
22®
1.7
19
1.5
24
1.8
t)
1-5
4
0.3
158 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Eighth Level
A further indication of the plaza floor noted under the last
level was afforded immediately after the excavation of the eighth
foot was commenced. With its top even with the plaza described
was an ancient wall, somewhat out of alignment, extending
transversely across and beyond the trench on both sides. Further-
more, there was also revealed at the very beginning of the eighth
foot, in both faces of the trench and throughout its length, a thin
horizontal stratum of black decayed vegetal material that could
have occurred so regularly only on level ground, such as a plaza.
The wall referred to was one of several, later uncovered, that
had constituted parts of the earliest houses of Hawikuh, others
of which were found beneath the northern and western refuse-
heaps, below the later dwellings along the eastern slope, and
elsewhere.
Potsherds were numerous.
Type
Number
Percent
Late polychrome
J230I0
81
Early polychrome
150
9
Recent glaze
611
0.3
"Sikyatki"
36
2.2
Glaze I
26
1.6
Glaze II
21
1.2
Glaze III
10
0.6
Black-on- white
28|
8/
Black-on-red
2.2
Corrugated
26
1.6
Total
1641
sherds; that is, 30 early-polychrome fragments came from the eastern half
of the level and one (which was doubtful) from the western half.
® Of these, 20 were found in the western half of the trench and the
other two, the classification of which was doubtful on account of their
small size, were from the remainder.
^^ From the small size of the sherds and the necessity of basing the
classification on thickness and color (the early polj^chrome ware being
usually thinner and more delicate in hue), it was possible to render only
an approximate determination of the two types. This applies also to the
polychrome sherds from subsequent levels. It seemed that the deeper the
deposits the more difficult was it to distinguish the two classes.
" Of these, three were doubtful.
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH
159
Aside from pottery the native artifacts were not significant.
An iron nail was found in the western part of the cut.
Ninth Level
The upper part of the ancient wall extending across the trench,
greatly disintegrated, was exposed for a foot. Part of another wall,
with a wall at a right angle to it, which had formed corners of
two rooms, was exposed at the eastern end of the trench, just
beyond and lower than the west wall of Room 321.
The sherds :
Type
Nitmher
Percent
Late polychrome
1091
80.7
Early polychrome
137
9.9
Glaze I
42
3-0
Glaze II
24
1-7
Glaze III
27
1.9
"Sikyatki"
14
I.O
Black-on-white
")
Black-on-red
1.2
Corrugated
5
0.3
Recent glaze
absent
Total
^^S7
Two pieces of iron, in addition to an iron nail, were found at
the extreme western end of the trench. Another fragment of iron
was found near the middle, and at the eastern end a small copper
pin.
The almost total disappearance of recent-glaze pottery from
the eighth foot and its complete absence from that level downward,
coupled with the fact that objects of European origin continued
to appear, is noteworthy.
Tenth Level
The deposit consisted largely of earth and stones, impreg-
nated with ash, charcoal, and of course potsherds, together with
the usual stray artifacts of minor importance, except an earthen-
ware figurine of a horned toad and another which some of the
Indians regarded as a Newekwe (clown) effigy.
Further ancient walls were uncovered as shown on the plan.
Two pieces of iron were found at the eastern end of this level.
i6o
THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The pottery fragments consisted of the following, the polychrome
wares in some cases being of doubtful determination as to age.
Tyfe Number Percent
Late polychrome
Early polychrome
Glaze P2
Glaze II
Glaze III
"Sikyatki"
Gila
Black-on-white
Black-on-red
Corrugated
Total
132
731
46
3-
32
24
171
4
1524
78
8.5
8.013
2.1
1.5
14
0.2
Eleventh Level
The fill exposed by the trench presented no significant change.
In one of the rooms was a stone which, too large for removal,
probably served as a seat.
Intrusive objects continued to be found — a small copper pin
or wire ; two pieces of iron in the eastern third and another piece
in the western third of the cut.
The pottery fragments were :
Type
Number
Percent
Late polychrome
1024
69
Early polychrome
142
10
Glaze I
112
7-5
Glaze II
84
5.6
Glaze III
33
2.2
''Sikyatki"
31
2.1
Gila
28
1.9
Black-on-white
Black-on-red
171
10/
1.8
Corrugated
4
0.2
Total
1485
^2 In addition there were five bowl sherds with exterior glaze and white
matt decoration on red slip, but the fragments were too small for exact
classification.
13 Including the five sherds of glaze not assigned to exact type.
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH l6l
Twelfth Level
Further objects showing the result of Spanish contact were
encountered — three iron nails and a flat piece of iron at the ex-
treme western end of the level, and four pieces about 20' to the
eastward.
A significant discovery was the burial of cremated remains of
an adolescent (Burial 1290) in a jar of Gila ware, covered with a
bowl of early polychrome (Gila?) ware, "killed" by a puncture in
its base,^* and accompanied with a plain earthenware ladle, at a
point 8' 6" from the vertical line of the east wall of Room 281
and f 6" from the line of the northeast corner of Room 309.^^
The top of the jar was at the bottom of the Twelfth Level. The
occurrence of this burial in a Gila vessel is especially interesting
for the reason that Gila sherds commenced to appear in the Tenth
Level.
The pottery from the Twelfth Level was represented as follows :
Type Number Percent
Early polychrome
Late polychrome
Glaze I
Glaze II
Glaze III
Gila
"Sikyatki"
Black-on-white
Black-on-red
Corrugated
Total 1875
Thirteenth Level
The ancient walls continued and others were revealed as the
plan shows. Two more burials came to light:
^* [Editors' note: Burial 1290 was contained in a jar of Tonto Poly-
chrome, and the bowl covering it proved to be of Kechipawan Polychrome.]
1^ These rooms, however, did not extend to this depth, as above
mentioned.
823
44
548
29
203
10.8
98
5.2
32
1.7
70
37
28
1.5
361
19/
2.9
18
0.9
l62 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
No. 1295. An aged person lying on the left side with knees
strongly flexed, skull on left side directed southwardly; bones
greatly decayed. Probably the body had been so flexed because
of the presence of the large stone, mentioned under the Eleventh
Level, just beyond the position of the pelvis. There were no ac-
companiments.
No. 1296. An adult, lying on the back, but turned slightly to
the left, head directed to the southwest. At the skull was the
greater part of a bowl of Gila ware in many fragments, together
with other vessels or parts of vessels, including two dippers, of
plain ware, and fragments of a reddish brown bowl simply deco-
rated in white below the outer rim.
At the western end of the trench was found an iron nail, and
within the eastern third a piece of iron. A fragment of copper,
possibly part of an ornament, was also recovered.
The polychrome pottery was now clearly characteristic of its
early period, and the early glaze and Gila wares were both actually
and relatively more numerous.
Type Number Percent
Early polychrome
Late polychrome
Glaze I
Glaze II
Glaze III
Gila
Corrugated
"Sikyatki"
Black-on-red
Black-on-white
Total 1618
Fourteenth Level
Within the walled enclosure at the eastern end of the trench an
iron nail was found.
1^ Including part of a human effigy vessel decorated in black and white
on a yellow slip.
708
276
268
43
16
107
6.6
40
II616
2.4
7.1
43
2.6
14
0.8
251
21/
2.8
328
29
77
6.9
3iii7
28
109
9
8
0.7
183
16
5
0.4
34)
25/
5.3
29
2.6
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 163
Type Number Percent
Early polychrome
Late polychrome
Glaze I
Glaze II
Glaze III
Gila
"Sikyatki"
Black-on-red
Black-on-white
Corrugated
Total 1 109
Fifteenth Level
The bottom of the trench reached clay and rock in situ and
walls that extended from beyond one face of the trench to the
other. The undisturbed material referred to commenced at a point
10' east of the west end of the trench and extended eastward to
the foundation stones of the first house walls encountered in the
Seventh Level.
Further excavation of a foot in the western end of the trench
brought to light disturbed material in the first lo feet, deepening
toward the west where commenced the knoll on which the pueblo
was built, as before referred to. After a large amount of refuse and
sand had been deposited on this slope, thus extending it westward
and raising the plaza by a height of about 8' 6", Room 281 and
the adjacent domiciles were erected.
It was plainly seen that the fill west of and above the roof of
the kiva was richer in ash and other refuse than that below and
beyond the line of the roof, further indicating that the kiva was
underground at the time it was in use.
At the western end of the trench, and thus within the area of
the old dump, were found fragments of a green-glaze Spanish
vessel.
" Included here were 55 sherds of bowls with no decoration on the
interior, so far as the fragments revealed, but with a simple white pattern
below the outer rim, so characteristic of Glaze I ware.
164 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The limited number of potsherds were :
Type Number
Early polychrome 90
Early glaze (all kinds) 5
Black-on-red 2
Black-on-white i
Total 98
These fragments are not regarded as of particular significance,
as some of them came from within the ancient houses (to which
they perhaps more directly pertained, rather than to the great
fill proper), others from the top of the fill at the western end.
The distribution of the pottery revealed by the trench is shown
in the accompanying table (Table i), which indicates the first
appearance of all the types and their increase or decline. It may
be well to discuss the subject further by commencing at the
Fourteenth Level and proceeding to the surface.
Early Polychrome
As before stated, the Early Polychrome sherds were not always
exactly segregable from the later wares of this type, but it is
believed that the numbers given are accurate in the main. Any
error is applicable to both classes.
It is found that the proportion of Early Polychrome increased
from 29% in the Fourteenth Level to 43% in the Thirteenth and
44% in the Twelfth, from which depth it decreased to only 10%
of the total number of sherds in the Eleventh Level. Thence
upward there was almost a uniform decline until the Fifth Level
was reached, where the last sherds of this class, comprising only
1-3% of the whole, were found.
Glaze I-III
The percental increase of the Early Polychrome pottery in the
three levels mentioned was not due alone to the actual increase in
numbers, but in part to the decrease in Glaze I and Glaze II
fragments, especially the former, in these levels. This would seem
to indicate that from the time the refuse of the lowest level was
deposited Early Polychrome commenced to supersede the Glaze
I-III wares. Indeed Glaze III represents the merging of glaze
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 165
decoration plus matt red into Early Polychrome. These three
early glaze types reached their climax at the very beginning of
Hawikuh, Glaze I forming 28% and Early Polychrome 29% of
all the sherds at that time, whereas in the next stage (Thirteenth
Level) the former increased to 43% and the latter declined to
16%. As time went on and the refuse gained in depth, Glaze I and
Glaze II became steadily scarcer until the deposit reached the
Fifth Level, when they disappeared. The distribution of Glaze III,
however, which type was never significant (only 153 sherds were
found in the entire trench), was somewhat erratic so far as the
sherds revealed, having a range of 8 fragments in the Fourteenth
Level, 40 (2.4%) in the Thirteenth, and only 3 in the Tenth, but
increasing to 27 in the Ninth, declining to 10 in the Eighth, and
disappearing entirely from that point to the surface. In the mean-
while, however. Late Glaze commenced to appear.
Late Polychrome
"Late Polychrome," a label to which we became accustomed
at Hawikuh, designates a type of painted ware, without glaze,
that had its beginnings early in the history of the pueblo. The
distinction between Early and Late Polychrome is described else-
where. The table shows that of a total of 1109 sherds examined at
the Fourteenth Level, 77 were of this ware, a percentage of only
6.9 as against 28% of Glaze I and 9% of Glaze 11. But Late Poly-
chrome grew strongly in popularity, for when the refuse deposit
reached the Thirteenth Level, this class of ware had increased to
17% of the whole, and by the time the Seventh Level was reached
the percentage was 87. Declining for the first time at the Sixth
Level (82%) (in which stratum fewer than half the number of
sherds in the Seventh were found), it again increased in the Fifth
Level (86%), but thenceforward declined to 23% when Hawikuh
was abandoned. This was due to the introduction of Recent Glaze
in the meantime.
Recent Glaze
The Recent Glaze is readily distinguishable from the Early
Glaze wares, notwithstanding the fact that Recent Glaze and
Glaze I are both represented by black glaze decoration on a red
slip. The matter need not be discussed further at this point.
l66 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Recent Glaze first appeared in the refuse after the plaza had
reached its Eighth Level, in which foot of the trench only 6 sherds
were recovered. According to our observation this was about the
time of the abandonment of the kiva, presumably in 1632. The
range in numbers upward from this depth, however, showed an
almost constant increase, the exception being a drop from 45
sherds (7%) in the Sixth Level to 39 (5%) in the Fifth, but
increasing to 20%, 50%, and 64% respectively in the levels above.
We have already noted that the introduction of the manu-
facture of Recent Glaze materially affected that of Late Poly-
chrome, for whereas the sherds of the latter from the Fifth to the
Second Level numbered respectively 662, 202, 130, and 44, the
Recent Glaze fragments from the same levels were 39, 60, 165, and
119, in order. Had Hawikuh not been forsaken when it was,
followed soon after by the permanent abandonment of all the
other Zufii pueblos, it is not improbable that Late Polychrome
would have been largely superseded by Recent Glaze.
"Sikyatki" Ware
The pottery designated by the above term both on account of
its character and for traditional reasons, was found at every depth
of the plaza deposit, as the table shows. However, as there were
found only 290 examples of a total of more than 14000 sherds, or
only about 2% of the whole, with an average distribution of 3.1%,
they were hardly sufficient to afford much information aside from
the fact that the ware was present at Hawikuh at the very be-
ginning of the pueblo. If we may depend on such a small number
of sherds, "Sikyatki" ware had its vogue during the period that
the refuse increased from the Twelfth to the Seventh Level (28 to
45 sherds), except at the Ninth Level (14 sherds) ; but in percentage
the period of greatest use (or perhaps we should say breakage)
was from the Fifth Level to the Second, when the proportion was
5% to 8%.
Gila Ware
Commencing at the Fourteenth Level with 16%, sherds of Gila
ware decreased steadily through the Tenth Level, in which foot
the sherds comprised only 1.5%. In the Fourteenth Level the
Gila fragments were exceeded in numbers and proportion only by
Early Polychrome and Glaze I (29% and 28% respectively).
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 167
Within the first 9 feet of the fill Gila ware was entirely absent.
It would therefore seem that this type of pottery was present
when Hawikuh was established, but that it gradually declined
until the fill of the plaza had reached the top of the Tenth Level.
We shall refer later to a possible reason for the presence of Gila
ware at Hawikuh. We have already noted that in both the Twelfth
and the Thirteenth Level a burial associated with Gila pottery
was found, indicating, as in certain old houses, that this class of
earthenware was brought to Hawikuh from the south by the
people who made it and who tarried long enough to practice the
custom of cremation, which was foreign to Zuni cult. Indeed the
occurrence of Gila sherds in such relatively large numbers at the
very bottom of the trench strongly suggests that a colony from
southern Arizona or northern Sonora may have played a part in
the founding of Hawikuh. The presence among the Zufii of certain
elements of a southern cult, like that of the Macaw, for example,
is indicative of this.
Corrugated Ware
Corrugated or indented ware was rather sparsely represented.
Before the Fifth Level was reached no sherds appeared, and then
only three ; in the Eighth Level 26 were recovered, but they again
declined until the trench was sunk to the Twelfth Level, where the
number was 18, while in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth, 43 and
29 were found, yet in each of these last 2 feet the percentage was
only 2.6. Indeed of all the sherds on which the table is based,
corrugated ware was represented by less than 1%. It should be
borne in mind, however, that as cooking vessels were often only
partly corrugated, a strict determination of their sherds could not
be made ; moreover, some of the corrugated fragments may have
been of pre-Hawikuh origin.
Pre-Hawikuh Wares
Black-on-white and Black-on-red pottery was unquestionably
of pre-Hawikuh origin, hence these types need not be more than
alluded to. Whereas from the Second to the Twelfth Level the
former exceeded the latter in numbers, in the following 2 feet
the reverse was the case. To this day sherds of vessels of these
types are sought by the Zuiii in preference to others, on account
l68 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
of their hardness, for grinding as tempering material of earthen-
ware vessels.
It stands to reason that in a pottery count of the kind here
presented there must be some degree of error, as in the difficulty
of always distinguishing the two types of Polychrome ware and
the three classes of Early Glaze from small sherds : but with such
a considerable number on which to base determinations after the
elimination of thousands of others that were doubtful or were
known to be parts of a single vessel, the liability of error is believed
to be reduced to a minimum. It is hardly necessary to say that had
the trench been dug 6 inches instead of a foot at a time the depth
distribution of the pottery would have varied somewhat from our
findings, but the main results would not have been altered.
Of course it must not be supposed that in discussing the increase
or decrease of the occurrence of the sherds of varying types we
are dealing exactly with periods of pottery manufacture, but of
pottery breakage. Yet Indian earthenware vessels were constantly
made and constantly broken, like those of other people, so the
greater the number manufactured the greater the number that
met with accident. Some vessels, no doubt, survived for several
generations, and, finally meeting disaster, contributed to the
refuse deposited later than that of the period in which they were
made.
From observations made while the excavation of the trench
was in progress, and subsequent study of the distribution of the
potsherds, various questions naturally arose, important among
which were: (i) The height of the plaza floor from 1540 to the
early years of the 17th century when the Spaniards made their
various entradas) (2) The occurrence of objects of European origin
from surface to base ; (3) The height of the plaza in 1629 when the
mission of Concepcion was founded, and during the following
years until the abandonment of the pueblo in 1692. Some of these
matters have already been alluded to in discussing the disclosures
of the successive trench levels. We shall now refer to them more
at length.
(i) Anticipating discussion of the age of Hawikuh, we must
refer briefly to the evidence that its very earliest houses were
contemporary with those whose wall remains were uncovered
toward the bottom of the trench, others of the same relative age
being found beneath the northern and western refuse-heaps, as
well as below the latest, historic, Hawikuh dwellings. These ancient
THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 169
domiciles, however, had been abandoned, filled in, and others built
above them, still in prehistoric times, but none of the latter were
encountered in sinking the trench. The rectangular kiva, one of
the main beams of which has been dated by Dr. Douglass as of
the year 1250 (?),^^ belonged to this later prehistoric period.
Now, as the uppermost part of one of the earliest house walls
was horizontally continuous with the beginning of the Eighth
Level, and as at exactly this depth the thin stratum of dark refuse
extended throughout and beyond the limits of the trench, there
seems to be no question that these were evidences of the existence
of a plaza floor, a part of which, a foot higher, was encountered in
the protected recess exposed by the western end of the trench. It
should be borne in mind that in making this excavation the line
of the surface was followed, so that the difference of the height of
I foot in a length of 75 feet was not significant. Furthermore,
beyond (east of) the recess at the Seventh Level no extension of
the plaza floor was found.
As it would have been impossible for a plaza to have existed
lower than the top of the ancient wall which reached to the
beginning of the Eighth Level, and as various other similarly old
walls were encountered throughout the trench immediately be-
neath, it seems obvious that a part of the plaza of Hawikuh when
the pueblo was visited by Coronado in 1540 and by various other
Spanish parties up to the early years of the 17th century, was that
found at the Seventh and Eighth Levels of the trench. During
this period the roof of the underground kiva which agrees so well
with early Spanish descriptions, was at the level of the plaza
described, the latter sloping slightly upward tow^ard the kiva roof,
the coping of which, as we have seen, was about a foot higher. It
was at the time the plaza here determined was in use that Recent
Glaze pottery commenced to appear in and Glaze III to disappear
from the refuse.
(2) It seems equally evident that, when the plaza mentioned
was made, the ancient rooms beneath were filled with materials
from adjacent refuse-heaps and that, later on, digging in the plaza
for various purposes, or the burrowing of prairie-dogs, caused the
objects of European origin to find their way to the very bottom.
1^ [Editors' note: In "A Square Kiva at Hawikuh" (Hodge, 1939) it is
mentioned that Douglass subsequently reported tree ring dates from
Hawikuh as 1381, 1391, 1405, and 1480; these dates presumably supersede
the tentatively reported earlier date.]
170 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
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THE POTTERY OF HAWIKUH 171
Table i. Pottery Types from the Plaza Trench,
Showing Distribution by Levels
[Editors' note: The types are here arranged as Hodge had
them in his final, pencilled version of this table, and are not in
chronological order.
Current (approximate) equivalents for the terms used by Hodge
are as follows:
Early Polychrome : Kechipawan Polychrome
Glaze I : Heshotauthla Polychrome
Glaze n : Kwakina Polychrome
Glaze ni : Pinnawa Glaze-on- white. Elsewhere, Hodge some-
times called Glazes I, II, and III, "Ancient Glaze."
Late Polychrome : Matsaki Polychrome
Glaze IV: Hawikuh Polychrome. This was also called "Re-
cent Glaze" by Hodge
"Sikyatki": several types, including Jeddito Black-on-yellow
and Sikyatki Polychrome
Gila: Gila Polychrome (including "Tonto Polychrome")
Corrugated: unnamed kinds of corrugated pottery
Black-on-white: various Pueblo III black-on-white types
Black-on-red: various Pueblo III black-on-red types.]
172 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
It does not seem possible to account for their presence by any
other means. For the same reason it may be supposed that there
was more or less disturbance of the pottery fragments from upper
to lower levels; but there was no such intrusion of Recent Glaze
ware below the Eighth Level, as the table shows.
(3) In discussing the history of Hawikuh during the Spanish
period mention was made of the efforts of the missionaries to
eradicate all native religious practices and to compel the aban-
donment of the kivas. "Where nothing appeared but estufas of
idolatry," wrote Fray Alonso Benavides in 1630, "today all the
land is populous with very sumptuous and beautiful temples.'*
Whether Figueredo was more lenient toward the Zuiii of Hawi-
kuh than his successor. Fray Francisco Letrado, we have no
knowledge, but there is no room for doubt that, as a faithful
Franciscan missionary sent to convert the pagans, he was as strong
in faith and in sense of duty as were the Indians in their efforts to
preserve the religion of their fathers. Letrado was murdered at
Hawikuh in 1632. It would not be inconsistent with this tragedy
to conclude that it was the result of Letrado's efforts to compel
the Zufii to forsake their rites and their kivas. It is therefore not
improbable, indeed it is most likely, that the plaza level above
discussed as in use ninety years before continued to be used
during the period of the mission, that is, from 1629 to early
in 1632.
We have seen that after the death of Fray Letrado the Zufii
fled to Corn Mountain, as was their wont in times of trouble and
expected vengeance, remaining there, it is said, for at least three
years, although the record of this period seems far from complete.
The pueblo, including its kiva or kivas, in the meanwhile fell more
or less into decay and its plazas were covered with wild growth,
as became Hawikuh, the "weedy." The regular stratum of black
material referred to indicated this ; the trench exposed none such
elsewhere. It was useless to occupy the kiva again, for other
missionaries would doubtless soon return, and the houses were so
far in ruins that it were well to rebuild the pueblo, first raising
the plaza floor. Filling materials were therefore brought from
nearby dumps and the level raised a foot in height, or to the top
of the kiva coping — within our Sixth Level. The irregularity of
the fill at this point indicates this. Then new houses were erected,
such as those at the eastern and western ends of the trench, the
foundations of which reached only into our Seventh Level.
CHAPTER IV
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS
INTRODUCTION
IN his endeavors directed toward the "restoration of the life of
the inhabitants" of Hawikuh, as Hodge termed it in one of his
preHminary reports (1924, p. 8), much attention was given to
the information obtainable from the burials in the refuse heaps
adjacent to the ruin. At the very start of excavation, in late May,
1917, burials were encountered in the refuse area, and Hodge
sensibly felt they should be investigated before being covered with
material thrown out of rooms in the pueblo itself. We can well
imagine the interest with which the first few burials were examined,
since the field notes show that they were accompanied by an
impressive assortment of objects. Under the heading ''Western
Cemetery" in Notebook No. i, on page 2, Hodge wrote:
Burial No. i, of a child, head northeast, 3 feet down, skull
completely flattened, other bones in fair condition, none saved.
Under the skeleton were the powdery remains of a skin or
fabric of some sort; above the skull, in fragments, three
vessels, viz. two decorated bowls (a, b) and a black cooking-
pot (c). At the child's neck were shell bivalve beads (d), all
saved, and two small sticks that appear to have been wrapped
in corn husk.
Burial No. 2, also a child, had a decorated bowl on the chest
and shell beads at the neck, and the notes add: ''Skinner says
entire body had been wrapped in cloth, which was not recover-
able." Burial No. 3 was even more impressive — two decorated
bowls, one "thickly coated on the inside with remains of food";
a flat stone slab probably used for making hewe or paper-bread;
a basket on the chest; two cooking pots; a small straight stone
pipe; a piece of green paint near the left wrist; and on the left
wrist a bowguard made of nine cylindrical bone beads arranged
parallel to each other. Burial No. 4 included, besides several
173
174 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
decorated and plain vessels, green paint, an antler "awl," scat-
tered corn cobs; and "beneath the trunk of the skeleton were the
much decayed remains of twisted strings and basketry, also a
small piece of charred skin." Burial No. 5, equally generously
equipped, included "remains of a fabric kilt from waist to below
knees," a cord belt at the waist, a pouch of green paint, a bow-
guard of 18 bone beads on the left wrist, a fragment of a flat
board painted green, and the remains of a wooden or reed flute
in the left hand.
The next burial found is of such interest that we quote the
field notes in full :
Immediately beneath No. 4 was burial No. 6, 7 feet down. It
lay on top of poles laid close together. About the left elbow
were a collection of pieces of silicified wood (a) which the
Zunis say were once attached, after boring, to the kilt to
make a tinkling sound when dancing. Over the poles referred
to, cedar bast was laid, under the trunk only. The skeleton
headed E. Over the trunk were placed two or three baskets,
flattened together and much decayed (b). A small piece of
green paint was on the chest (c) . A log about 6 inches square
lay along the right side the length of the body. Inside of this
and passing over the right arm, were a collection of 3 bows
and 2 flutes, massed together (d). In the vicinity of the neck
and left shoulder were 7 small arrowpoints (e) . The body was
covered with matting, much decayed. The quiver or covering
of the bows seems to be of woven material, an impression of
which is seen on the mass of bows. An old Zuni says these are
the remains of a Priest of the Bow. At the left side, from the
shoulder down was a worked stick, rounded on one side, flat
on the other, about [Editors' note: the notes have a blank
left here for the measurement] long (f) beneath which were
three other sticks, rounded (g), beneath which, in turn, were
3 more, and under these a mass of arrowshafts (h) & what
appeared to be a bunch of root stems which the old man says
were medicine (i). The rounded sticks had been bound together
& covered with matting. Behind & next to the rounded sticks,
about midway, were three arrowpoints larger than those above
mentioned (j).
This description illustrates well both the virtues and the short-
comings of the record of burials at Hawikuh. The objects accom-
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS I75
panying them were often numerous and interesting (although
scores of burials were also found with little or nothing with them) ;
the notes briefly inventory these objects, but rarely with measure-
ments, or even totals ("many broken vessels," or "a mass of
arrowshafts") ; sketches or diagrams were lacking in all but two
or three instances, and there is a photographic record of only
63 burials out of the total excavated. The Zunis were often con-
sulted for explanations of grave contents — a source of many
significant ethnographic details, but also no doubt sometimes a
basis for subjective and untrustworthy interpretations. Little of
the basketry, cloth, or wooden material was saved, and apparently
bulky objects of less attractive nature (metates, hammerstones,
cooking pots) were mentioned in the notes and then discarded.
It is tragic that means for preserving the many fragile, decayed
objects of basketry, cloth, wood, feathers, and skin were not avail-
able during the field work, as the notes are frequently so brief as
to be more suggestive than informative. Some fragments of cloth
and other perishables were apparently saved, as there are oc-
casional mentions of this in the field notes, and a few of these
specimens are still preserved in the Museum of the American
Indian. In the case of cotton textiles, of which there seem to have
been fragments in many graves well enough preserved for some
observations on position and original extent, the exhaustive study
by Kate P. Kent refers to the specimens in the Museum of the
American Indian collections as "a few disappointing scraps" and
none was significant enough to list in her catalogue of specimens
studied {see Kent 1957, pp. 650, 663, and 670-724).
Undoubtedly one serious problem in the field was the speed of
excavation and the considerable number of Zuni workmen to be
supervised. A photograph taken June 6, 1917, shows work on the
Western Cemetery, with 12 Zuiii workmen widening a narrow
trench, while Hodge, seated on the backdirt, writes in his notebook
(unfortunately the exposure was too long for the active pace of
the workmen, and so many figures are blurred that we have not
reproduced this picture) .
Most seasons Hodge had only two field supervisors on his staff,
so that note taking, selecting and preserving of perishable speci-
mens, mapping, photography, must have been difficult to accom-
plish in the time available. The first summer's excavation un-
covered 265 burials, including some with numerous and complex
accompaniments. Although the field notes often lack indication
176 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
of the date of each entry, in one instance 40 burials are recorded
in a space of 5 days — a pace that may explain some of the lapses
in record keeping.
Nevertheless, the records that we have constitute a remarkable
mass of information on the burial practices of the forebears of the
present-day Zunis. Few sites in the United States can equal
Hawikuh in the abundance of burials as well as their variety.
Hodge can hardly have realized when work began that such a
wealth of cultural and skeletal material would be found — 996
individuals, including both cremations and inhumations, and an
uncounted number of bowls, jars, prayer sticks, cloth fragments,
corncobs, bits of paint, stone tools, beads, and other objects that
contribute to an understanding of life in Hawikuh. Today an ex-
pedition of this scope would be better prepared to cope with this
flood of specimens, but in spite of shortcomings in the record, we
have been able to summarize many important aspects of Zuni
burial practices, and the study that someone will eventually make
of the non-ceramic specimens in the Museum will add significantly
to this.
Most of the burials were found in the trash heaps surrounding
the village, middens that spilled down the steep slopes of the mesa
to a depth far greater than Hodge expected, as he comments in a
manuscript presented later in this chapter. A few burials were
found within houses, made on or through the floors of rooms. The
field notes record 996 individuals, mostly single burials, with the
following totals for each season :
1917: 265 burials
1918 : 371 burials
1919 : 274 burials
1920 : 9 burials
192 1 : 19 burials
1923 : 58 burials
Of these, 679 were inhumations and 317 were cremations.
THE FIELD RECORD
Before proceeding to details of the burials, a few words on
the nature of the record and of our analysis of it will be appro-
priate. In the field descriptive notes, like those already quoted,
were made in a series of bound notebooks, about 5| by 9 inches,
interspersed with architectural notes (Plate 3). The notebooks
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS I77
are identified as to field season but entries are not individually
dated in most instances. The majority of the burial notes are in
Hodge's hand, but some are by Coffin and those from the Church
by Nusbaum, and it is possible that there are notes by Skinner
or others. Several systems were used for identifying burials and
accompanying artifacts. At first, field numbers were assigned
serially to all nonarchitectural finds — ^burials, extramural fire-
places, caches, etc. Burials were numbered in a separate con-
secutive series of numbers, so that Burial 42 has field number
70 given to its contents, which are listed as two bowls (70a, 70b)
and a duck pot (70c). Field number 71 is Burial 43, but could as
well have been a fireplace or a mass of animal bones. In 1918
separate field and burial numbers were discontinued, and the
record for that year began with Burial 501, followed by 502, a
dog burial. The contents of a burial were given consecutive num-
bers, so that Burial 508 includes No. 508, a jar, No. 509, a bowl,
and No. 510, the cremated remains found in the jar. But some-
times, by oversight, it was necessary to give all the specimens of
a burial the same number as the burial. Later, the subsidiary
numbers were again used, for example, Burial 1027 had with it
vessels 1027a and 1027b. These details may seem unimportant,
but it was not until we understood them that we were able to
match correctly the burial numbers and the field numbers of
specimens in the Museum of the American Indian. For clarity in
recording, we gave separate numbers to each individual in a grave
— occasionally the skeletons of mother and child were found to-
gether, merely identified as Burial 93, for example, and we recorded
these as 93 [A] and 93 [B], so that the original field number is
retained in each case, but the two individuals can be referred to
separately if necessary.
Fortunately, there still existed with the field notes the original
maps of burial locations, apparently made in the field by alidade
or transit. There were nine of these maps, and although no record
of the position and relationship of the survey stations marked on
them (Si, S2, S3, etc.) was found, we eventually found enough
overlapping details to fit the map sheets together around the map
of the house clusters, with the exception of one sheet that had on
it a few burials identified in field notes as in the "northern sand
dunes" — presumably some little distance from the village. This
composite map was the basis for the map reproduced here as
Figure 37.
178 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
METHOD OF THE PRESENT ANALYSIS
Our procedure in the compilation of the data for this chapter
was to first transcribe onto mimeographed forms all the burial data
in the notebooks (these contain notes of all kinds run together in
journal form), so that the data were available in a consistent
arrangement and any desired detail could be found quickly. We
then compared our file of vessels examined earlier at the Museum
wdth the burial forms, entering each vessel's type and catalogue
number on the form for the burial it came from ; of course, many
vessels mentioned in the field notes did not appear in our card file,
as they were not seen at the Museum. Some were undoubtedly
discarded in the field — cooking pots, particularly; some are prob-
ably in the Museum in unrestored and more-or-less incomplete
form; and many plain-ware specimens were passed over in our
examination as we were concerned at that time only with the
decorated vessels for purposes of typological definition. For-
tunately, the great majority of the painted pottery mentioned in
the field notes could be identified as to type from our file of Museum
specimens examined. The third step was to devise a coding system
and punch 996 Unisort Analysis Cards (Form Y9, 5 by 8 inches)
for manual sorting. The 97 holes of this card proved only barely
enough to record our data, because of the variety and extent of
burial arrangements and accompanying artifacts. Two codes, one
for inhumations and one for cremations, would have been desirable,
but this was realized too late to be feasible. On these punched
cards, certain selected details from the burial form were written
in; for example, if hole 65 was punched to indicate the presence of
basketry, the number of baskets and their position in the grave
were written in (if recorded in the field notes, which, unfor-
tunately, was by no means always the case) . Tabulation of specific
traits and of associations was then possible by simply sorting the
cards. In spite of the considerable labor involved, this technique
permitted checking quickly and thoroughly for any detail in a
way that even large tabulations of burials on squared paper would
have made cumbersome.
DISPOSITION OF THE SKELETAL MATERIAL
During the field work a selection was made of the better
preserved material, and it was sent to Ales Hrdlicka at the United
States National Museum where it still is with the exception of four
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 179
skulls transferred to the Museum of the American Indian col-
lections. We found no systematic record in the Hawikuh ex-
cavation notes of skeletons saved and sent to Hrdlicka, but through
the kindness of T. Dale Stewart, of the U. S. National Museum,
and with the assistance of Lucile E. Hoymie, of the Museum staff,
we examined the catalogue and accession records. From the 1917
and 1918 field seasons 182 skulls or skulls with more or less com-
plete skeletons were received by the Museum; from the 1919
season, 74 skeletons and/or skulls; five from 1922; and five from
1923. For all of these Hrdlicka or his assistants determined sex
and age (merely as fetus, small child, child, or adult) and most of
these identifications were sent to Hodge who entered them in the
field notebooks. Thus we have a record of 266 individuals' skeletal
remains from Hawikuh; but unfortunately 136 of these lack
Hodge's field numbers in the U. S. National Museum records,
somewhat reducing the value of the specimens. A letter to Hrdlicka
from George G. Heye (the founder and director of the Museum of
the American Indian) says in part :
It is understood that as soon as the opportunity is presented
you (Dr. Hrdlicka) will prepare a complete report on this
collection for publication by the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation. The matter of details of the pub-
lication can be left to the future.
Such a report was never written and published, although Hrdlicka
summarized some of the details of the collection in his "Catalogue
of Human Crania in the United States National Museum Col-
lection" (Hrdlicka, 1931). He lists cranial measurements and
indices of 118 "Old Zunis" (49 males, 69 females), and adds in-
formation on age and sex. The undeformed male skulls of this
series (35 individuals) were used by Carl C. Seltzer in his extremely
important study, "Racial Prehistory in the Southwest and the
Hawikuh Zunis" (Seltzer, 1944), using the data published by
Hrdlicka in 1931. It should be mentioned in passing that Seltzer
assigned these specimens to "the Early Spanish period" on the
basis of information supplied by Hodge. Actually, however, only
two of them can be definitely placed in post-contact times, a
burial which contained Hawikuh Polychrome, dated to about 1630
to 1680; and a burial from Kechipawan which contained an iron
awl. The other 34 specimens used by Seltzer have the following
basis (or lack of it) for chronological assignment :
l80 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
13 lack a record of the field numbers in the U. S. National
Museum catalogue, and therefore cannot be identified as
to the burial from which they came ;
15 are from burials that had no artifacts of chronological
significance ;
4 are associated with Mat said Polychrome, dated from about
1475 to the late i6oo's;
I is associated with the Tonto Variety of Gila Polychrome,
dated from about 1250 to 1400 (Steen, 1962, pp. 28, 30).
Nevertheless, since the largest number of datable Hawikuh burials
are from the i6th and 17th centuries, a "late pre-Spanish and
early Spanish" estimate for the chronological position of the series
would be reasonable.
SCOPE OF THE PRESENT REPORT
In the rest of this chapter we will present details of the recorded
information on the Hawikuh burials, based principally on the
field notes. We have not attempted to go beyond Hodge's data
and describe the considerable quantity of non-ceramic specimens
in the collections of the Museum of the American Indian, and, as
already mentioned, the field descriptions are often cursory in the
extreme. The complete notes are presented herein for some of the
more impressive or unusual burials, so that the reader can judge
their richness and variety, and sa.mple the ethnographic comments
furnished by the Zuni workmen. Hodge left three manuscript
accounts of certain aspects of the burials and deposits in the
Hawikuh cemeteries, and we have included these at appropriate
points later in this chapter; they are "Forms of Burial," "Burials
within the Church," (a fragment of a longer, incomplete manu-
script), and "Ceremonial Deposits in the Hawikuh Cemetery."
Since none of these details the wealth of cultural material, or
provides chronological control of the data, they have had to be
extensively supplemented by our own tabulations, which make up
the bulk of what follows.
Before turning to details of the graves and their contents, this
is an appropriate place to introduce a previously unpublished
summary, by Hodge, of the Hawikuh burials, based on the first
two seasons' work. It mentions many of the aspects of these
burials that he undoubtedly expected to treat in detail in later
reports.
the burials and associated artifacts l8l
Forms of Burial at the Ancient Zuni Pueblo
OF Hawikuh, New Mexico
by
Frederick W. Hodge
[Editors Note: A letter in the files of the U. S. National
Museum, written by Hodge to Ales Hrdlicka on January 2, 1919,
states in part that "[I] shall take up, at once, the revision of the
paper on Hawikuh Burial Customs and let you have it as soon as
possible." This paper was probably intended for the American
Journal of Physical Anthropology , then edited by Hrdlicka, but a
check of that journal shows that it was never published. Among
Hodge's papers was the manuscript published here, consisting of
an unfinished handwritten revision written in the winter of 1918-19
of a typescript version completed the year before. We have supple-
mented the revised portion with the appropriate part of the earlier
version, and added a memorandum on cremation that Hodge had
appended as the basis for concluding the paper.]
It is not necessary in this place to review the history of this
interesting and important ruin of which this brief paper treats,
aside from recalling that it was one of the so-called "Seven Cities
of Cibola" of the early Spanish explorations and that it was
inhabited by the Zuni Indians of New Mexico when seen by Fray
Marcos de Niza in 1539 and visited and stormed by Coronado in
1540. The seat of a Franciscan mission established in 1629, Hawi-
kuh was more or less in contact with the Spaniards for nearly
ninety years [up] to that time, and under direct Spanish influence
for the next forty-one years or until its abandonment about 1670
on account of an Apache raid.^ [Editors Note: In his "History of
Hawikuh" Hodge indicated that the pueblo was probably re-
occupied after the raid of 1672, and permanently abandoned at
the time of the Pueblo Revolt in 1680.]
Excavations at Hawikuh were commenced late in May, 1917,
by the writer, assisted by Messrs. Alanson Skinner and E. F.
Coffin, under a joint expedition of the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, of New York, and the Bureau of Ameri-
^ For a brief account of the history of Hawikuh in relation to the
excavations, see Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian In-
stitution in 1917, pp. 61-72, Washington, June, 1918: El Palacio, Vol. V,
No. II, Santa Fe, Oct. 7, 1918; Art and Archaeology, Vol. VII, No. 9,
Washington, Dec, 191 8.
l82 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
can Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, the
field-work being made possible by the generous patronage of
Harmon W. Hendricks, Esq. a trustee of the Museum mentioned,
to whom students of American archeology and ethnology are
indebted in this and in many other ways. The research was resumed
in June, 1918, and continued for nearly four months with Mr.
George H. Pepper and Mr. Coffin as field assistants. The work will
be continued during the coming summer.
Hawikuh was built on a defensive height whose maximum
elevation is sixty feet above the surrounding plain; but the ex-
cavations indicate that long before the site was occupied by the
Zufii people who built their habitations on the summit and slope,
as well as at the eastern base of this height, houses were erected
and occupied at the base of the western and northern sides of the
eminence. These dwellings were abandoned before the upper hab-
itations were built, as the former were covered to a maximum
depth of sixteen feet with the refuse from the Hawikuh dwellings,
together with sand blown from the valley during the spring wind-
storms. No doubt the northwestern tier of houses of Hawikuh on
the hilltop, exposed during the season of 1917, were, as suggested
by Mindeleff,^ the most recent, for they were built on the great
deposit of debris referred to, although Mindeleff attributed their
recency to the form of construction. In this refuse human burials
were made at varying depths beneath the slope. During the season
of 1918, the excavations were devoted largely to the refuse flanking
the northern limits of the settlement, which here reached an
average depth of about seven feet; but the conditions attending
the burials were practically identical with those of the cemetery
uncovered in 1917, excepting for the cremation deposits, to which
reference will be made.
We will first consider the burials of those who may conveniently
be termed the pre-Hawikuh dwellers, for there is every reason to
believe that, as intimated, the site was inhabited by Indians
differing more or less in culture from that of the Zuiiis of the
Hawikuh period. Without discussing at this time the differences
in the earthenware found, the forms of burial of the earlier oc-
cupants were quite at variance with those of the later inhabitants.
Whereas the Hawikuh people proper interred as a rule with the
head of the body directed eastwardly, their predecessors usually
2 C. Mindeleff, "Localization of Tusayan Clans," Nineteenth Annual Re-
port of the Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 650, Washington, 1901.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 183
buried the dead with the head in a northerly or a southerly
direction, although there were numerous instances in which orien-
tation was evidently a matter of no consideration. Furthermore,
in only exceptional cases were the older burials accompanied with
the possessions of the deceased, with other objects, or with food,
whereas with the later interments in only a comparatively few
cases were the remains unaccompanied with quantities of food and
their containers, together with the personal ornaments and remains
of the clothing of the departed.
For the practical reason that it was deemed desirable to clear
away the refuse surrounding the pueblo ruins on the summit of
the height in order that a place might be made for the debris to
be removed in uncovering the houses, work was commenced at
the bottom of the western slope, at the outermost limit of the
refuse deposit. The excavation here had proceeded only a few feet
when human burials were encountered, at a depth ranging from
immediately beneath the surface to seven feet. At first it was
believed that the slope of the hill on this western side would soon
be met, but this proved not to be the case, for the farther the
digging was carried, the deeper it became, until ultimately it
reached the depth of 15 feet.
Moreover, before the deeper part of the deposit was reached,
burials that possessed the characteristics of relatively modern
graves became scarcer, and by the time the maximum depth was
penetrated, the modern graves were not encountered at all; but
at the bottom of the refuse deposit were the foundation walls of
very old houses, which evidently had been those of a much more
ancient settlement than the pueblo on the summit.
While only a limited amount of excavation has thus far been
conducted in the houses of Hawikuh proper, that is, those on top
of the knoll, above the refuse, and it has not yet been determined
whether their inhabitants practiced intramural burial, such a form
of interment was in vogue among the builders of the houses found
beneath the great refuse heap. There were found on the floors, and
in a few cases beneath the walls, human remains, without accom-
paniments, and especially the remains of children. While the pot-
sherds found in these older houses were of several kinds, including
"corrugated" cooking vessels, it was all of the older types, the
best of it consisting of bowls of red, orange-red, and reddish-brown
ware with geometric designs in green glaze on the inside, and with
a white, non-glazed, geometric design on the exterior. In every in-
184 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
stance the glazed decoration was expertly applied, the lines usually
being narrow, well controlled, and without evidence of "running."
Elsewhere in the debris, usually at its lower levels, were found
other old burials, only in exceptional cases being accompanied
with artifacts and usually interred wdth the head directed in a
northerly or a southerly direction, if deliberately directed at all.
In a number of cases only parts of skeletons v/ere found, rarely
with accompaniments. This lack w^as not owing to decay, for in
most instances the bones were in even better condition than those
of remains interred long subsequent to them. Sometimes the skull
was missing, sometimes a leg or an arm, or both, while in other
instances minor bones were lacking. On the other hand, lesser parts
of a skeleton — the skull or a part of one, a leg or an arm bone, a few
ribs, the bones of the pelvis — were found buried alone, many feet
from any skeleton found in its entirety or nearly so. Then, again,
in one case the bones of the skeleton had been broken to pieces,
not on account of disturbance by burrowing animals, but deliber-
ately. In this case the bones were not scattered beyond the normal
limits of a grave. All these unusual burials were very old, although
in a number of instances it was possible to save at least a part of
the skeleton. [This is the end of the handwritten, revised version.]
It is difficult to offer a reasonable conjecture in explanation of
these anomalies. In the case of the last mentioned the Zuiii insisted
that these bones were the remains of a human feast, their ancestors
having practiced cannibalism at times under the stress of famine.
In explanation of the occurrence of only parts of skeletons, espe-
cially those unaccompanied with mortuary vessels or other objects,
it was urged by the natives that they were the remains of enemies
who had been killed, and this may possibly have been the case.
Coming now to the more recent burials, distinguished by the
depth of interment, the more or less lavish use of mortuary objects
of personal use and adornment, and especially quantities of food,
not to mention articles of Spanish origin in a few instances, the
remains were interred usually with the head directed eastwardly,
with the body fully clothed and placed on or covered with mats.
In only exceptional instances was the grave lined with stone,
sepulture being made in the indurated refuse or on strata of clear
sand blown from the broad plain surrounding the ruin. Sometimes
the bottom of the grave was covered with cedar or juniper bark,
and food in quantity was thrown thereon before the dead was
interred; then over the remains other food was cast, sometimes in
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 185
earthenware bowls or in large basket trays, sometimes without
such containers. Usually little care was taken to place the vessels
in the grave so that they would not be broken, but were thrown
in promiscuously. Generally the remains of the food covered only
the trunk, but sometimes the body had been covered from head
to foot. Wherever this moist food, consisting of squash, corn on
the cob, pifion nuts, etc., came in contact with the body, the bones
were greatly decayed, but the woven cotton clothing, as well as
the baskets and matting, was fairly well preserved, enabling the
preservation of samples of considerable size. When the food had
not come in contact with the bones, usually the legs and the skull,
they were in much better condition. As most of these more recent
burials were directed with the head toward the east, as mentioned,
the bones of the feet were the first ones encountered, and great
was the disappointment, after uncovering them in excellent con-
dition, only to find that the bones from the pelvis to the skull,
covered with food remains, had become greatly disintegrated.
No notable cases of artificial head deformation were observed
in the well-preserved skulls, aside from slight flattening of the
occiput caused by the use of the cradle-board in infancy.^
It should be mentioned, however, that by reason of the extreme
dryness of climate, the bones were not exposed longer than was
necessary, but v/ere packed for shipment as soon as possible to
prevent further disintegration; consequently no serious attempt
was made to observe skeletal anomalies in the field, and intensive
study of the bones has not yet been commenced.
A third form of burial discovered during the process of the
summer's work was that of incinerated human remains deposited
in earthenware vessels and usually accompanied by other utensils
that had contained food and water. Of this class there were six,
four of which were found immediately beneath the surface of the
eastern slope of the Hawikuh knoll, one three feet deep at the base
of the southern slope, and one three and a half feet deep in the
western cemetery, where practically all the systematic excavation
was conducted. The work has not yet proceeded far enough to
warrant determination of the significance of these cremated re-
mains, although it seems rather odd that only one of more than
^ In 60 males and 30 females examined among the Zuni, Hrdlicka
noted II cases (18%) of occipital deformation among the former and 3
cases (10%) among the latter. See his "Physiological and Medical Observa-
tions," Bull. 34, Bureau of American Ethnology , p. 83, Washington, 1908.
l86 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
two hundred graves uncovered in the western cemetery was an
incinerated urn-burial while four of the six were found with only
slight trial digging in the eastern slope. From the shallowness of
their burial it would seem that the cremated remains are relatively
recent, and there is confirmatory evidence of this in the statement
of Castafieda, one of the chroniclers of the Coronado expedition,
that the people of Cibola "burn their dead, and throw the im-
plements used in their work into the fire with the bodies."*
Evidently in the case of the incinerated remains, the dead had
been burned with their clothing and personal ornaments, if we
may judge by certain small shell beads, showing the action of the
fire, interspersed among the bones. The burned bones of one of the
burials found in the eastern slope had been deposited in a quantity
of wood ashes under the upper half of a water jar, only twelve
inches beneath the surface. In the same slope another burial of the
same kind projected slightly above the surface.
[Untitled memorandum :]
Cremations from surface to 120" deep.
Sometimes deposited without a jar container.
Shells, fabrics, etc.
Crystals and stone fetich outside of vessel.
Vessels almost invariably covered with a bowl, sometimes with a
mere sherd.
Sometimes surrounding and above the urn, stones were placed.
Burial of a child with a toy jar on the bones.
Sometimes uncharred food was placed on the cremated bones.
See No. 516 for various vessels in association.
Orange pottery in cremations — no glaze.
Killing of vessels from inside or out.
Killing of covering bowls.
* Winship, "Coronado Expedition," Fourteenth Annual Report of the
Bureau of American Ethnology, pt. i, p. 518, Washington, 1896.
SUMMARY OF FIELD DATA ON THE BURIALS
Locations of the Burials
Hodge refers in his notes and published articles to the Western,
Northern, and Eastern Cemeteries, but as these areas lack defini-
tions and do not include all the locations where burials occurred,
we found it more convenient to designate 13 arbitrary numbered
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 187
"areas" for the recording of burial locations; a 14th category for
"other" locations could, fortunately, be fitted into the coding of
a group of four holes on the punched cards. These areas are shown
on the map (Fig. 37) and can be roughly defined as follows :
1. Northern Cemetery, in Hodge's usage
2. Eastern Cemetery (northern part), in Hodge's usage
3. Eastern Cemetery (southern part), in Hodge's usage
4. Southeastern area
5. Southern Cemetery, in Hodge's usage
6. Southwest area
7. Extreme southwest area
8. South central area
9. Western Cemetery, in Hodge's usage
10. Northwest area
11. Burials in "Northern Sand Dunes" — an undetermined dis-
tance north of the site
12. Houses B, C, and D
13. Church
14. Other locations (including a burial in front of Hodge's tent
in the camp area, two in the Plaza Trench, and several found
by chance beyond the immediate area of the site) .
The distribution of burials in these locations is densest to the
north and west, sparsest to the south, as the map and the following
tabulation show:
Area
Inhumations
Cremations
I
71
33
2
70
8
3
67
0
4
14
0
5
16
I
6
25
3
7
5
8
8
10
0
9
276
25
10
5
223
II
13
8
12
54
0
13
41
0
14
8
I
not recorded
4
7
l88 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
On the basis of association with distinctive decorated pottery,
there are no areas clearly assignable to a particular period of
Hawikuh's histor}^ but earlier burials (accompanied by Hesho-
tauthla, Kwakina, or Kechipawan Polychrome, or Pinnawa Glaze-
on-White) are chiefly concentrated in Areas 2, 9, 10, and 12. By
far the greatest number of burials is associated with Matsaki Poly-
chrome, and these are particularly numerous in Areas i, 3, 6, 9,
and 10. The latest diagnostic pottery at Hawikuh, Hawikuh Poly-
chrome (and Hawikuh Glaze-on-Red) occurs with burials most
frequently in Areas 3, 9, and 11. It can be concluded, therefore,
that at any particular time, there was a tendency to use only a
few locations for burials, although this was not strictly followed.
The most noticeable burial concentration of all is the intensive
use of Area 10 for cremations in contrast to the wider scattering
of inhumations. House burial (Area 12) was most popular early
in the village's history, the time that Hodge referred to as "pre-
Hawikuh" and during the earlier part of the occupation of the
main house blocks. Of 21 burials in House Groups (in B, C, and
D — there were none in A, E, and F) w^hich had identifiable
decorated pottery with them, there were only two occurrences of
Matsaki Polychrome and none of Hawikuh Polj^chrome. In addi-
tion, several burials were found in the "pre-Hawikuh" houses that
were only partly uncovered during the excavations in the refuse
heaps along the west side of the site; these rooms were probably
occupied during the period marked by the dominance of Hesho-
tauthla Polychrome.
Dating the Burials
Although the field notes usually record the depth of a burial
below the modern surface, the refuse heaps in which these burials
were placed grew throughout the span of occupation of the pueblo,
and grew not only in depth but outward spread. It was apparently
impossible for Hodge and his assistants to determine the relative
chronology of most burials on the basis of position and strati-
graphic relationships because of the complications of midden
growth, of constant disturbance by the placing of burials, and of
later disturbance by innumerable rodent burrows. Sometimes the
field notes record that a burial had unbroken strata of ash or
windblown sand above it, suggesting placement at a time when
the midden had only accumulated to the base of such a stratum.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 189
But in general, only a few burials can be placed as indisputably
early on the basis of their stratigraphic position. Many more,
particularly a large number of cremations, may be late in the
growth of their particular portion of the refuse heaps because they
are very near the present surface, sometimes even eroding out of
it. That depth is not closely related to age, however, is most
clearly shown by the fact that of 36 inhumations accompanied by
Hawikuh Polychrome or Glaze-on-red, the latest pottery of the
site, and with recorded depth from the surface, only five are less
than 20 inches deep, ten are from 21 to 40 inches deep, sixteen are
from 41 to 60 inches, and five are from 61 to 80 inches below the
modern surface. Obviously the midden continued to accumulate
during the final decades of occupation, and burials w^ere made at
varying depths. We have, therefore, disregarded depth in most
instances as a clue to chronological position.
The surest guide to chronology for the burials is association
with identifiable decorated pottery, since the more abundant types
can be placed in an approximate sequence with estimated dates.
This permits the assignment of about one-third of the Hawikuh
burials to a place in the ceramic sequence of the Zuni region. For
the remainder, many had as burial furnishings objects that lack
definable chronological distinctions (or in some cases pottery that
was insufficiently described in the field notes and not found in the
Museum of the American Indian), and many others lacked burial
furnishings entirely.
One other excellent clue to chronology is available, the presence
in some of the burials of European artifacts, such as iron knives or
glass beads, or of locally made vessels in European shapes. And
to the post-contact period we can, of course, assign the burials
made in the nave of the Church.
These associations permit the chronological placement of buri-
als as shown in Table 2.
The majority of the cremations are accompanied by (usually
contained in) vessels of Matsaki Polychrome, which w^e estimate
to have been made from about 1475 to the mid-i6oo's, and they
can therefore be assigned to approximately these same years.
However, no cremations occur with artifacts of European origin
or inspiration, or with Hawdkuh Polychrome (dated at 1630 to
1670), and therefore it is probable that the practice of cremation
ceased soon after the arrival of Spanish priests and the com-
mencement of missionary efforts.
1 90 the excavation of hawikuh
Table 2. Chronological Assignment of Burials
Approximate Dates Inhumations Cremations
1200-1300 (associated with Pueblo
III black-on-white or black-on-
red pottery)
2
0
1300-1400 (associated with Hesho-
tauthla and/or Gila Polychrome)
15
II
1350-1475 (associated with Pinnawa
Glaze-on-white, Kwakina Poly-
chrome, or Kechipawan Poly-
chrome)
20
13
1475-1650 (Associated with Matsaki
Polychrome or Matsaki Brown-
on-Buff)
165
88
1630-1670
(i) Associated with Hawikuh
Polychrome or Hawikuh
Glaze-on-red
36
0
(2) Associated with European
artifacts
23
0
(3) Burials within Church
41
0
No datable association
377
205
Totals 679 317
Determining when cremation began at Hawikuh is more dif-
ficult, since dating must depend largely on estimates of the time
during which the pottery with them was in use. Aside from
Matsaki Polychrome, the following pottery types occur with cre-
mations at Hawikuh :
I. Gila Polychrome (including 3 examples of "Tonto Poly-
chrome" which Steen [1962] has suggested be dropped as a separate
type, and combined with Gila Polychrome, since it represents
merely a minor variation in the colors of the decoration). Eleven
cremations were contained in or covered by Gila Polychrome
vessels and had no vessels of other types recorded as with them
(although several had plain utility vessels or pieces mentioned in
the notes without details and not identifiable in the collections of
the Museum of the American Indian). Five other cremations in-
cluded Gila Polychrome and another decorated type, one with
Pinnawa Red-on-white, one with Kechipawan Polychrome, and
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS I9I
three with Matsaki Polychrome. Gila Polychrome, and its asso-
ciated Tonto variant, have been the subject of much controversy
as to origins and dates, and we can only summarize recent expert
opinions here. Earlier descriptions (Gladwin and Gladwin, 1930;
Colton and Hargrave, 1937 ; Haury, 1945) gave dates of about 1300
to 1400. Smiley, in 1952 (p. 62) concluded that dates of "ca.
1250-1400" were more appropriate from a review of tree-ring dates
associated with the type, and in a recent appraisal of the status
of Gila Polychrome Steen (1962, p. 28) confirms this conclusion,
giving his opinion as "1250 to after 1400." The only violent dis-
agreement is by DiPeso (1953, pp. 133, 262, and 1958, p. 83) who
argues on extremely slender and inconclusive evidence that Gila
Polychrome may have continued to be made until about 1700-
1750, dates that conflict with evidence from a large number of
other studies, and which will be disregarded here.
2. Kwakina Polychrome, for which we have suggested dates
of about 1325 to 1400. Two cremations were in jars that could not
be identified as to type (one plain red, the other of buff resembling
Matsaki Polychrome with red geometric decoration suggestive of
Pinnawa Red-on-white) and were covered with bowls of Kwakina
Polychrome, and one cremation in a Kwakina Polychrome jar was
covered with a Matsaki Polychrome bowl.
3. Pinnawa Red-on- white, for which we have suggested dates
of about 1350 to 1400. One jar contained a cremation (and was
covered with a Pinnawa Glaze-on-white bowl) and one bowl cov-
ered a cremation already mentioned (contained in a Gila Poly-
chrome jar).
4. Pinnawa Glaze-on-white, for which we have suggested dates
of about 1350 to 1400. One bowl, just mentioned, over a cremation
in a Pinnawa Red-on-white jar; one jar, covered with an unidenti-
fied plain red bowl; and one jar, covered with a Matsaki Poly-
chrome bowl.
5. Kechipawan Polychrome, which we have dated at about
1375 to 1475. Ten cremations included vessels of this type: six of
them had no other identifiable vessel ; one was covered with a bowl
of Sikyatki Polychrome; and three were associated with Matsaki
Polychrome.
6. "Unnamed White-on-red," a decorative treatment probably
occuring briefly in the early 1400's. One white-on-red bowl was
associated with Gila Polychrome and two jars and a bowl were
associated with Matsaki Polychrome.
192 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
7. Sikyatki Polychrome, to which a span of about 1400 to 1625
has been assigned (Colton and Hargrave, 1937, p. 152). A bowl
covered a cremation jar of Kechipawan Polychrome, and a jar
contained a cremation and was covered with a bowl of Matsaki
Polychrome.
None of these pottery associations need indicate a date for
cremation at Hawikuh earlier than 1400, and since the dates for
the pottery types are no more than estimates, we can hardly be
more precise than to conclude that cremation was most probably
introduced sometime in the years from about 1400 to 1450. Since
the present volume is an attempt to present Hodge's data and we
have tried to avoid the temptations of comparative digressions,
the relationships of Zuni cremation to other occurrences of the
practice will not be discussed here.
Age and Sex of the Skeletons
Although identifications were made in the field for many of
the burials, and a substantial number of skeletons sent to the
U. S. National Museum, where they were examined by Ales
Hrdlicka, neither source of information provides a wholly satis-
factory indication of the age distribution and sex of the Hawikuh
burials. The field identifications were not made by trained physical
anthropologists and must, therefore, be considered only approxi-
mations. In the case of cremations, the field notes occasionally
indicate that when bones were numerous the individual was judged
an adult, and when few was recorded as a child or infant. Appar-
ently no careful study of such details as tooth eruption, epiphysial
union, or closure of cranial sutures was made. Nevertheless, the
field identifications usually agree with Hrdlicka's data, as far we
can determine, and thus provide a fair indication of the nature of
the Hawikuh population as represented in burials. The identifica-
tions by Hrdlicka, while the work of an experienced physical
anthropologist, were of individuals selected in the field on the
basis of criteria we can now only guess. Doubtless excellence of
preservation was the chief consideration. Therefore, Hrdlicka's
sample can hardly be thought of as representative in a statistical
sense.
For what they are worth we present in a Tables 3 and 4 sum-
maries of both the field and the museum identifications.
the burials and associated artifacts i93
Table 3. Age and Sex of Hawikuh Burials, as Determined
BY Field Observations
inhumations cremations totals
totals
male female f^^ total ^ , ,
unknown deter-
mined)
Old adult
2
II
13
13
Adult
55
76
140
271
76
347
Young adult
2
2
8
10
Adolescent
6
5
31
42
27
69
Child
I
I
148
150
62
212
Infant
130
130
17
147
Fetus
5
5
5
Age unknown
66
66
127
193
Totals 64 82 533 679 317 996
Table 4. Age and Sex of Hawikuh Skeletons Sent to
Hrdlicka at U. S. National Museum
[as recorded in catalogue, Div. of Phys. Anth.)
sex not
determined
male female A^lL.rJ ^^tal
Adult
84
112
196
Adolescent
6
5
I
12
Child
21
21
Infant
14
14
Fetus
18
18
Totals 90 117 54 261
It is worth noting that only one cremation seems to have been
saved, and it was sent to the Museum of the American Indian and
therefore not examined by Hrdlicka (nor, as far as we know, by
any other physical anthropologist) . It is apparent that he was sent
mostly adult skeletons, which are, of course, those most valuable
for the kinds of comparative racial and anatomical studies that
Hrdlicka was so interested in. Subsequent to his examination of
these skeletons and the recording of age and sex data in the cata-
13
194 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
logue of the U. S. National Museum, Hrdlicka published a series of
measurements and observations on them, and somewhat refined
the age determinations, with the results listed in Table 5.
Table 5. Age and Sex of Hawikuh Skeletons
(from U. S. National Museum Proceedings, Vol. y8, Art. 2, igji)
Age Male Female
Young Adult
2
Adult
21
25
22
I
24
I
25
I
4
26
I
30
6
9
35
I
9
40
3
7
45
5
2
50
7
4
55
I
3
60
3
I
65
I
70
2
75
I
Forms of Inhumation
The field notes usually include the position of the skeleton and
its orientation, and provide the basis for Table 6. Although, as
can be seen in the table, burials most frequently have the head
toward the east (40% of those for which direction is recorded),
orientation toward the north (24%) and south (16%) are also
fairly common, and a few instances occur of orientation to other
directions. Chronological changes in orientation are suggested by
these data, although for the earliest periods too few burials are
adequately recorded for satisfactory generalizations. Northward
and southward orientation seem most frequent for burials of the
i20o's, 1300's, and early 1400's — that is, until the end of the time
of dominance of Kechipawan Polychrome. In contrast, eastward
orientation characterizes the burials associated with Matsaki Poly-
chrome (late 1400's to late i6oo's) and is even more preponderant
in the burials of the i6oo's associated with Hawikuh Polychrome
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 1 95
or with European artifacts. In the Church, however, there is a
consistent orientation to the north (or more precisly to the north-
northeast) — that is, towards the door of the Church and away
from the altar. The one exception is Burial 35, placed close to the
altar platform, with arms folded on the chest and head to the
southwest, directly toward the altar. This, the only non-Indian
burial at Hawikuh, is discussed in greater detail elsewhere (pp.
201-202).
The position of the body in burial is extremely variable,
although most of the positions recorded occur only rarely. Since
sketches or photographs were not made for most of the burials,
and the field notes usually record burial position in only a word
or tw^o, the data are best presented in tabular form (Table 7).
Table 6. Orientation of Hawikuh Inhumations
(Direction given is of the head)
Not
recorded E SE S SW W NW N NE Total
I. Associated with
B/W & B/R pottery
2
2
2. Associated with
Heshotauthla and/or
Gila Polychrome
3
2
3
I
I 5
15
3. Associated with
Pinnawa Gl/W or
Kwakina or Kechi-
pawan Polychrome
3
I
3
I
9
3
20
4. Associated with Mat-
saki Polychrome
17
76
17
21
I
4
7 12
10
165
5. Associated with
Hawikuh Polychrome
4
24
2
2
3
I
36
6. Associated with
European Artifacts
14
4
I
2
2
23
7. In Church
15
I
25
41
8. No diagnostic
association
79
107
17
55
4
18
8 77
12
377
Totals 123 224 40 84 7 27 16 131 27 679
As would be expected, the majority (60%) of the burials for
which position was recorded are extended on the back. Very few
are flexed, and of these a significant proportion are of the earlier
13*
196 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
periods, prior to the late 1400's, thus suggesting a Ungering of the
practice of flexure that was predominant in the Southwest prior
to 1300 (Stanislawski 1963, p. 315). Semi-flexed burials were
slightly more numerous at Hawikuh than were fully flexed, and
most of them, insofar as they can be placed chronologically, are
associated with Matsaki Polychrome, from the late 1400's to the
late i6oo's. After 1600 nearly all the datable burials are extended,
except for a notable proportion of the Church burials being of the
skull only or reburials of bones collected and bundled together.
For example, "The burial had originally been made in clayey or
muddy soil and after disinterred and buried in fine sand in the
church. There were no accompaniments — the bones were placed
without order in a deposit covering a space of about 15" by 20"."
(Church, I [A].)
A few unusual positions occur: kneeling; head severed and
placed on the chest ; on the back with the lower legs bent under the
upper legs; and, in the case of a few infants or small children,
placed on a bowl or fragment of pottery. Only a few burials had
to be recorded as "disturbed" despite the intensive use of some
of the burial areas, although in many cases partial intrusion and
some slight disturbance had occurred when a later burial was
placed close to an earlier one.
In the case of burials extended on the back, one hand often
was placed on the pelvis, and occasionally both hands. Instances
also occurred of one hand on the chest or under the chin, and of
one ankle crossed over the other, but such details are recorded in
the field notes too sporadically for their tabulation to be mean-
ingful.
Although the great majority of burials at Hawikuh were of a
single individual, a number of infants or small children were buried
with adults and a few other instances are recorded in the field
notes of two or more individuals apparently buried simultane-
ously, as follows: Twenty-two fetuses, infants, and children
were buried with adults, 12 of them with a female, two with a
male, and eight with an adult lacking record of sex. It can be
assumed that most of the adult females were the mothers of the
young individuals buried with them, and in two graves the pres-
ence of the skeleton of a fetus within the pelvic cavity of an adult
female suggests death in childbirth or late in pregnancy. This is
also suggested by the two fetuses found between the upper legs of
an adult woman. The remaining two fetuses buried with an adult
the burials and associated artifacts
Table 7. Position of Hawikuh Inhumations
197
B
0
0
1
n
S
1
1
42
1
pq
+3
;3
of
ri4
cd
j-j
0
03
1
is
^
ri4
Cd
0)
Oh
•^
^
£
1
tK
;3
.53
W
PlH
a
§
ffi
w
^
:0
^
iS
^
fl
^
^
^
-M
-(->
•+J
'%
^
cd
^
?
^
^
0
TJ
'd
T!
,.c:3
Td
0
'd
^d
f>H
0
0)
<D
<D
0
(L»
0)
'^.
'fj
Cj
P
^
.^
.3
S
•SS
pq
•JS
S
0
(.J
0
0
^
0
Q
0
!-i
Q
Vh
0
0
0
TJ
/i
CO
WD
0
Cfi
0
"f'
^
0
<^ <1
£ ^
Extended on back
Extended on left side
Extended on right side
Extended on left or right
side
I
I
6
I
103
2
2
24
I
14
23
I
118
2
I
2
290
3
4
5
Flexed on back
Flexed on left side
Flexed on right side
Flexed on left or right side
Flexed and sitting
2
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
4
5
8
6
5
9
II
6
I
Semi-flexed on back
Semi-flexed on left side
Semi-flexed on right side
Semi-flexed on left or
right side
Prone
Kneeling, head upward
On back, legs bent under
at knees
Skull only
Skull on chest
Reburial or "bundle"
Infant or child in bowl or
on sherd
Incomplete skeleton
Disturbed
Position not recorded
I
I
2
I
2
I
I
2
6
7
2
3
2
2
I
I
3
I
2
30
2
9
I
I
I
I
I
4
5
6
2
4
13
7
8
13
5
I
8
I
10
2
15
13
141
23
II
12
18
7
I
2
13
I
19
4
18
19
197
Totals
2
10
19
165
36
23
41
383
679
198 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
were placed elsewhere in the grave ; and one other burial of a fetus
was recorded, alone in a grave.
A few other multiple inhumations occurred, of which the most
complex (Burials 909, 912, 916, and 917 in the Northern Cemetery)
included four adults (sex not recorded) , all extended on the back ;
two were side by side with heads to northeast ; the third was across
their feet, head to southeast; the fourth with legs across the skull
of the third, head to east. About ten fragmentary vessels of Mat-
saki Polychrome were in the grave, also pieces of green paint,
traces of matting, a blue feather, and several other artifacts.
Apparently all four individuals were buried at the same time.
Burial 165 included an adult male extended on back, skull
missing, oriented to northwest, with "decayed material" (wrap-
pings ?) under and around it, and directly above this a young adult
female, extended on back, head to southeast ; she was accompanied
by traces of bark, a basket at the left shoulder filled with corn in
the cob, and a coarse bowl on top of the basket ''also filled with
corn and remnants of other food."
Burial 947 and "947I" consisted of an adolescent and an
individual of unspecified age (sex of neither recorded), both ex-
tended on back, side by side, one with head to north, the other to
south; accompanied with three Matsaki Polychrome jars, a ham-
merstone, and traces of fabric.
A "very small baby" and a "child of perhaps 4 years" (both
of these are field identifications) were recorded as Burial 99. Both
were extended on back, head to south. With them were an un-
decorated double toy canteen and a miniature jar of Matsaki
Brown-on-Buff.
Burials 1007 and 1008 were of two children, one skeleton
"almost twice the length of the other," both extended with head
to south, the skull of the smaller lying above the pelvis of the
larger. They were accompanied by four Matsaki Polychrome and
two Hawikuh Polychrome vessels, as well as corn, squash seeds,
decayed bark, a few bits of green paint, four drilled shells (bivalves)
and a shell pendant.
In all other instances of skeletons lying close together in the
ground this relationship appeared to be an accident of a later
grave impinging on an earlier one.
Since many of the rooms in the various house units were ex-
cavated as deeply as possible, any intramural burials in these
locations were certain to be encountered. This form of burial was
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS I99
not common, however, and was usually reserved for infants. The
majority of these burials beneath house floors are late in the
occupation of Hawikuh, although paucity of associated artifacts
and the difficulty of accurately dating a room floor by means of
the trash found above and below it make chronological placement
uncertain. Two infants and an adolescent are associated with
Pinnawa Polychrome or Pinnawa Red-on-white and one child is
associated with Kechipawan Polychrome. A child and an adoles-
cent are associated with Matsaki Polychrome, and all the other
sub-floor burials can only be estimated to belong to a relatively
late period in the history of the village on the basis of their
stratigraphic position. Of 60 subfioor burials recorded in the field
notes, 37 are of infants, ten of children, four of adolescents, two
of adults, and seven of individuals for which age was not recorded.
In one instance, an intramural burial was clearly not beneath
a floor but on it. Burial 1271 consists of a child's skeleton lying
on the stone paving of Room 340, and completely covered by
stones. Presumably this was an abandoned room; unfortunately
no artifacts accompany the burial.
Although the interpretations of archaeological findings by
native workmen should not always be accepted uncritically, the
following entry in the field notes deserves, perhaps, to be placed
on record: "Burial 118 — adult, headed E. Flexed tightly, on back,
knees drawn up to chest, elbows raised & hands clasped on right
side of head. Left elbow higher than head (see photo). Indians
think this person buried alive. No objects. Depth 10 feet." The
two photographs, not reproduced here, show no details not in-
cluded in the field notes that might further explain and support
the Zuilis' comments.
Burials within the Church
by
Jesse L. Nusbaum
[Editors' Note: This manuscript, found among Hodge's papers,
was unsigned. Reference to the author's excavation at the Old
Pecos Church in 1912 leads us to conclude that the piece was
written by Nusbaum, who also supervised excavation of the
Hawikuh mission.]
200 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
After the nave had been excavated to the adobe floor and
cleaned, depressed areas, showing patched flooring, in front of the
altar steps and the two side altars indicated that burials had been
made beneath the floor. Accordingly, an area approximating 175
square feet of the floor surface was removed, and in the sand fill
below, thirty-nine burials were found, from i foot 9 inches to
4 feet in depth below the floor surface, measured to the top of the
skull in each case.
The infants and children were buried at an average depth of
2 feet, while adult burials averaged 3 feet. The adult burials
numbered sixteen, child burials the same, and infant burials were
seven in number.
Contrary to the usual practice in church burials, the original
burials in the nave, although extended on the back, were oriented
a little east of north, with the feet toward the altar, rather than
the head, indicating that the Franciscans had not, at the time of
these burials, succeeded in overcoming the practice of orienting
the head to the east of north.
In making so many burials in such a limited space, congestion
followed, and several were badly disturbed. Burials so disturbed
were placed at the side of the new burial or reinterred in another
portion of the floor; the grave filled with sand to the floor level,
and plastered over with adobe mud. Of the 39 burials, 8 were of
the bunched or disturbed type, the bones being placed at random
in the new graves.
Strange as it may seem, burial number 37, adult, 3 feet 6 inches
down, extended on the back, head in northerly direction, was the
only one found accompanied with any church insignia. In the right
hand, held at the right breast, was a small beautifully worked
wooden cross of juniper cedar, the terraced top resting under the
chin of the individual.
Burial number 40, of young child, 2 feet 6 inches deep, extended
on back, head oriented to the north, had a drilled wooden pendant
on chest, completely inlaid or covered with drilled and undrilled
turquois beads, held in place by the liberal use of piiion gum which
helped to preserve the specimen [see pp. 260-261].
Burial number 9, 3 feet 3 inches deep, extended on the back,
head oriented to the north and east, arms folded on chest, was
placed in a grave previously filled several inches in depth with
coarsely ground corn-meal, and after interment of the individual,
as much more was placed over the body from head to feet. When
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 201
excavated, the meal was moist and had the appearance and con-
sistency of a coarse white plaster, which was removed with diffi-
culty. No other burial of those excavated within the church was
accompanied with a food sacrifice.
Burial number 36, adult, 3 feet in depth, skull only found, was
the only individual whose skull gave evidence of a violent death.
The skull was badly crushed in a number of places, any one of
which would have caused instant death, and one blow had broken
the front teeth off flush with the bony structure which supported
them in the upper jaw. The fractures indicate the use of a rounded
headed weapon, possibly a club of wood or more likely, hafted
stone war club.
The more sacred ground for burying purposes was that nearest
the altar, although it is reasonable to suppose that use was made
of the whole nave as necessity demanded, as was the case at the
old Pecos church, excavated and repaired by the author in the
summer of 1912. The apse of the Pecos church was used as a
cemetery long after the church was in ruins, and many burials
were made in the debris above the main floor. None was found
above the adobe floor of the mission at Hawikuh, indicating that
the church was never used for this purpose after its final destruc-
tion, nor were any burials found within the monastery proper.
Possibly several hundred burials were made under the floor
of the church (over two hundred were found in a restricted area
of the Pecos mission), but having gained evidence of the practice,
it was decided not to disturb more burials.
To the left of the main altar in the chancel, a trench was
excavated between the altar platform and the wall on the east,
and at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches a burial extended, and on the
back, placed therein with the head just even, and touching the
front face of the earlier altar, was found, showing that the burial
was made during the earliest occupancy of the church, and before
the new altar was constructed. Adobes placed on edge were used
to line the grave next to the wall, and broken, as well as whole
adobes, were used to cover the individual, making its excavation
very difficult. The protection of the adobes surrounding the in-
dividual, was taken advantage of by the prairie-dogs, who had
enlarged the space into a hemispherical nest, and undoubtedly the
absence of religious insignia can reasonably be attributed to this
cause. This was the only burial found within the chancel area, and
likewise, the sole individual interred with the head directed toward.
202 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
rather than away, from the altar, all of which inclines the writer
to the conclusion that the burial was that of a priest of the mission,
or of the Franciscan Fray Martin de Arvide who visited Letrado
at Hawikuh on his way to Christianize the unidentified Zipias to
the west, and was killed on the twenty-seventh of February, 1632,
by the treacherous Zuiii, five days after the death of Letrado. At
any event, the interment of the body was probably made by the
detachment of soldiers that went from Santa Fe with the avowed
purpose of avenging Letrado's death (as they recorded in the
carved inscription at the base of El Morro), since the Indians had
fled from Hawikuh shortly after murdering their priest. As Fray
Martin de Arvide was murdered several days travel to the west of
Hawikuh, it is more than likely that the body near the altar was
that of the priest, Letrado.
Grave Construction
With few exceptions the field notes record no observations of
the nature of the grave into which inhumations were placed. To
judge from the few photographs showing such details, most graves
were simple, elongated pits, and probably no effort was made to
achieve regularity of form. Since most graves were dug into rather
soft trashy material few tool marks or well-defined edges would
have remained for Hodge and his assistants to note. Hodge does
sometimes comment in his field notes that a grave appears to have
been too short, and as a result the skeleton was found with head
and feet higher than pelvis; this might also be interpreted as an
indication that the floor of the grave was dug a little deeper than
necessary.
Three graves had stones placed over the body. Burial 810 (an
adult, sex not recorded, accompanied by Heshotauthla Poly-
chrome) had "three very large stones" placed over the body.
Burial 729 (an adult female, with no artifacts of any sort) is
described as follows: "The grave was completely filled with large
and small stones and small flat stones lined the sides of the grave."
Burial 768 (an adult female with no artifacts in the grave) had
many stones piled on and around the skeleton.
Two graves had a somewhat more careful stone structure built
for them. Burial 197 (an adult male, accompanied by several stone
artifacts but no diagnostic pottery) lay on a "floor" of stones and
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 203
was covered by a "cairn." Burial 144 (an infant unaccompanied by
artifacts) was placed in a small but solidly built stone cist 14 inches
long and 8 inches wide, with an adobe floor and a stone slab cover.
These burials have no special distinguishing features to suggest
why they were given this unusual treatment, and none of these
arrangements of stone represents more than a few minutes effort
since the graves of Hawikuh were nearly always close to the
village, with its constant rebuilding, decay, abandonment, and
ready supply of loose rock.
Hodge states in the notes for several burials that stones were
thrown into the grave on top of the body and its accompaniments,
and sometimes adds that this accounts for the broken condition
of pottery. It is not clear, however, that such stones as were found
overlying these burials were ''thrown" intentionally into the grave,
rather than being accidentally included in the material with which
the grave was refilled. And the mere pressure of earth settling
into the grave after refilling may explain the breakage that oc-
curred, so that it seems to us doubtful that any systematic destruc-
tion of grave goods occurred, in spite of Hodge's interpretations.
The pits that were dug for some of the cremations will be
described briefly below, in connection with other details of the
cremations.
Cremation
The majority of the cremations at Hawikuh were either in jars,
covered by an inverted bowl, or in small pits with no evidence of a
jar, bowl, basket, or other container. The process of cremation was
generally carried far enough so that only ashes and small frag-
ments of bone remained, or at least this is all that was collected
and buried in the Hawikuh cemeteries. In one instance, however,
a burial (No. 1152) is described as "... not completely inciner-
ated" ; characteristically, there is no elaboration or further relevant
detail. It is not known where the cremation was carried out, as
no satisfactory evidence of a crematory basin or other special
structure was found. As noted by Hodge in the account in the
preceding pages, various articles of clothing and adornment, and
such grave offerings as corn were burned with the body and
charred traces occur with the ash and human bones. A feature of
Hawikuh cremations, as will be described below, is the "killing"
of some of the vessels used, by means of carefully knocking out
small pieces of the bottoms, sides, or rims.
204 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The most frequent form of cremation burial (317 recorded)
was in a small unlined pit dug quite shallowly into the refuse heaps
surrounding Hamkuh (165 out of 181 of them in the Northwest
Area). Usually these pits are round or oval. Diameter averages
9 J inches, with few pits more than 12 or less than 6 inches across;
the extremes are 5 and 18 inches. Depth averages about 8 inches,
with most pits between 4 and 12 inches and the extremes 2 and
16. A few irregular shapes occur, and one pit is described as
crescent-shaped, one as iigure-eight-shaped, and one as oblong
with rounded corners. Three are bell-shaped or bottle-shaped,
smaller at the mouth. One is described as rectangular and lined
with small stone slabs. Since the only artifacts with these pit
cremations were not chronologically diagnostic (shell beads, corn,
etc.) it is impossible to assign this form unequivocally to a time
period, but since most of the other cremations at Hawikuh occur
from the late 1400 's to the end of prehistoric times (about 1630)
it is probable that these cremations were made at that time also.
Nearly all the other cremations at Hawikuh were in jars, usu-
ally covered with an inverted bowl. The jar was most frequently
of Matsaki Polychrome, but nearly all of the earlier types occurring
at Hawikuh were used in smaller numbers. No cremation occurred
in a vessel of Hawikuh Polychrome, quite certainly because the
practice had ceased when this pottery began to be made. A few
cremations were placed in jars of utility w^are. The covering bowl
was often of the same type as the jar, but many other combinations
occur, and sometimes a fragmentary bowl or a mere sherd was
used. In one instance the jar was covered by a mass of reddish
clay, in lieu of a bowl. In two cases a cremation was placed un-
contained in a pit, but covered with two or three inverted bowls.
Infrequently the cremation was in a bowl instead of a jar. The
frequency of these arrangements is given in Table 8.
*' Killing'' of Cremation Vessels. By the time Hodge recorded
in his field notes the details of Burial 631, during the summer of
1918, he had observed enough cremations to make the following
generalization: "Bowl 631 was 'killed' in bottom, as is usually the
case with vessels containing cremated remains." Most commonly
the jar which held the cremation had an irregular hole an inch or
so across in its bottom; Hodge observed that in at least one
instance the perforation had been accomplished by a blow from
inside the jar, after it was placed in the ground, since the chips
removed were still lying beneath it. A little less frequently, the
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 205
bowl covering a cremation was "killed" with a hole through its
base. The field notes record in one case that the bowl was punc-
tured in place, inverted over a jar holding a cremation; the chips
from the hole were observed still where they had fallen. In a few
instances, a jar or bowl was punctured one or more times on the
side, or the rim was notched ; in four of these occurrences there were
four notches or holes oriented toward the cardinal points of the
compass; in other cases the number varied from one to six, or was
not recorded.
Of the II cremations associated with Heshotauthla or Gila
Polychrome, one had a basal puncture (in a jar of Gila Poly-
chrome). Five of the 13 cremations associated with Kwakina
Polychrome or Kechipawan Polychrome had "killed" vessels. The
trait is much more frequent in the cremations associated with
Matsaki Polychrome : it is recorded for 60 of the 88 graves, and it
is among these that the multiple perforations and the rim notches
occur.
Table 8. Forms of Cremation at Hawikuh
Latest associated In
jar
In I
lOWl
Uncon-
Total
pottery Cov-
Not
Cov-
Not
tained
ered
Cov-
ered
ered
Cov-
ered
Gila Polychrome 8
3
II
Pinnawa R/W or
G/W, or Kwakina
or Kechipawan
Polychrome 11
I
I
13
Matsaki Polychrome 71
3
7
3
4
88
None diagnostic 21
5
2
177
205
Total III 12 8 5 181 317
field notes for selected burials
As mentioned earlier, some of the Hawikuh burials were ac-
companied by a remarkably abundant and varied assortment of
objects, while others had little or nothing with them, insofar as
preservation and the nature of the field records permit this to be
judged. For the more richly furnished and more fully recorded
graves, direct quotation from the field notes can best convey
206 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
something of the situation encountered by Hodge. The following
extracts are selected to represent the most interesting or impressive
graves, and are not meant to be typical of Hawikuh burials in
general. They are quoted verbatim, although punctuation has
been added where it is essential for clarity.
Burial S2 (probably in Skinner's hand). "Burial of an adult, at
length, headed E. depth 4', near S. W. end of knoll. At head and
on chest several pottery jars and bowls (A), over head remains of
basket, projecting at right angle from lower jaw on right side a
cut antler (B), another cut antler at right elbow (C). Upper part of
body apparently clad at burial in deerskin shirt, also wrapped in
blanket of wool (d). At knees, broken metate, also a quartzite
hammer (e). Under head a fragment of shell (f), pottery, part of
head rest (g) for vessels, fabric (h), a pair of crossed brushes (i),
a metate (j), broken mullers (k). On left hand seed finger rings (i)
[Hodge later crossed out 'seed' and added 'of martynia pods' after
the word 'rings']. The metate & mullers were deliberately broken
and thrown on the pottery to 'kill' it. Feet crossed." [Five vessels
from this grave were identified in the Museum, three of Matsaki
Polychrome and two of Hawikuh Polychrome.]
Burial 28 (in Hodge's hand) . "This burial occurred immediately
beneath the burial of the Priest of the Bow [Burial 6] & seemingly
was that of a medicine- woman. The head was under the lower legs
of the latter that is, under Burial 216. Head directed E., body
slightly flexed to S. Beneath the burial, first, was matting, then
a heavy layer of cloth, both much decayed but fragments saved.
To the skull some hair seems to be attached. Over the groin &
level with the pelvic bones was a slab of wood, painted dark green
(a). At the waist, in a cluster, were what may have been the
contents of a medicine bag, viz., concretions, 2 large arrowpoints
and a beautiful artificially pointed crystal (b). Over the left
forearm was placed a hair and floor brush of straw or coarse grass,
badly decayed, & under this arm were corn-cobs. Corn-cobs were
found also about the skull and left side. The skeleton was in a
poorer condition than the fabrics that were recovered. A mano (c)
was placed at the left of the upper body & an antler punch (d)
lay at the right of the pelvis, but it broke of its own weight. No
pottery refuse sherds was found in the grave. At each ear of the
skeleton there were a carved piece of wood (e), which formed the
heads of hair combs [the last twelve words were later crossed out,
and the comment added that 'these were deer bezoars']." [Since
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 207
this skeleton was not saved there is no additional information on
age or sex.]
Burial 113. (probably in Skinner's hand). "Adult [Hodge has
added 'male/ probably from information sent by Hrdlicka] at
length headed E. Depth 6'. Deposit of pottery (A) at feet. Second
(B) on chest. Green paint, black, red, & white paint in traces of
bag at right hip (C). Reed arrows with hard wood foreshafts at
left hip (D). These also had 8 tiny flint points (E) in place but
with attachments decayed. With these was a wooden potato
masher war club (F) , another with wooden handle & round semi-
perforated stone head (G), remains of a reed [Hodge has crossed
this word out and written 'grass'] floor brush (H), part of a blanket
batten (G), a knife with large pink flint blade & wooden handle
(J) originally wrapped with buckskin thongs, another wooden
object resembling the batten (K). On pelvis were two unknown
small cylindrical wooden objects. (L), a prayer stick (M) and some
brownish hair, a scalp (possible Mex., at least the Indians said it
was) on a stick (N), also a little iron rust (M). At left leg was also
a bow too rotten to save, also (0) a floor brush, and another
batten (p). On right knee some sacred black & white paint (Q).
The body was wrapped in fabric (R) and laid on a mat, which was
too decayed to preserve. The whole skeleton was covered with
corn cobs & squash & gourd seeds (S). Near left breast was a
tiny stone ball (T) , near right waist a tubular bird effigy pipe (V)
[illustrated in Hodge, 1918, Fig. 7] with jet [Hodge has changed
this to 'obsidian'] eyes. Near right breast but possibly between
113 and 114 was a buckskin bag, small fragments remaining, con-
taining red, white, & green paint & a shell bead (W). This man
had bad teeth in lower jaw & i extra tooth in upper in front.
A small pendant of jet (X) was found near the throat."
In the field notes, preceding entry 170, which is Burial 113,
is entry 169, believed to be associated with it. Skinner's (?) notes
are as follows: "Scalp deposit. [See Fig. 38.] Fragments of blue
painted prayer sticks, human hair — several round pieces of scalp
about twice the size of a dollar — buried together at a depth of
3 1 feet. All in bad condition & scarcely preservable. The paint
was small thick rolls. The scalp fragments were capped by a small
round piece of plain pottery about the same size. The deposit,
though higher up, was obviously connected with 170, Burial 113.
With them was a broken dipper handle, smoothed down — A,
scalps; B, potsherd; C, dipper handle; D. paint, E, plumes." A
208 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
rough sketch in the notes shows two "prayer plumes" lying side
by side, the scalps (with no indication of how many or of their
arrangement) over them, four "rolls" of paint apparently placed
at four corners of the area occupied by the scalps, and the sherd
lying over the scalps with the dipper handle resting partly on the
sherd.
Burial igj (in Hodge's hand). "A woman, headed S. E., 44"
below surface. The body was completely covered with corn on
cob. At right side an inverted bowl (a) ; at left side of skull a small
jar, broken {b), within mouth of which was a bone needle with
eye (c) ; at side of right hip a round paint grinding stone (d), and
opposite right a large hammerstone (e) . Along right side, between
the side and bowl (a) , prayer-sticks unusually long, partly painted
& showing signs of wrapping (/). Along left side, bark, probably
of cedar (g) ; over left leg 2 baskets {h) , and over this remains of
a gourd dipper containing squash and gourd seeds (i). Another
basket over chest and lower part of head, and still another near
right shoulder. All these baskets contained food, the one on chest
having squash seeds as well as corn. From within a few inches
above body to a foot of the surface & covering a space about 5
feet square were the following:
"j. Various earthenware vessels, including two large decorated
waterjars, a large black cooking-pot, several bowls.
"k. A large squarish metate.
"L A he we stone [slab on which wafer bread was baked],
blackened.
"m. Seven manos, each broken in two or three pieces.
"Many rude stone implements broken to bits.
"All of these implements had been deliberately broken by
throwing in the grave, & were so placed without order or arrange-
ment. As shown in the photo they are placed beside the grave
merely to show the quantity of vessels and implements thus
sacrificed. [This photograph is not reproduced here, since, as
Hodge says, the objects are not shown in place.]
"At the feet, which were crossed, the left over the right, was a
bone scraper (n).
"In addition to the eyed needle in the small jar at left side of
head was a small ball of cotton or yarn, stuck into which was
another needle (o). In the jar also were a few squash seeds.
"Under the inverted bowl at right side (a) were {q) a molded
loaf of some gritty clayey material, and several cobs of corn. This
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 209
bowl lay over the edge of the basket at the right side. There were
also a couple of fragments of the clayey material in the bowl.
"Below the gourd at the left side were the remnants of a
woven bag (p).
"On a finger accidentally removed was a finger-ring similar to
others found on the finger-bones of other skeletons. No others
were found. The one found was lost.
"Projecting from under bowl a was part of a thin wooden
spatula (v) .
"It was found that squash seeds as well as corn extended over
& under the entire body. On removing the remains of corn and
other food from the body and exposing the cloth covering of the
bones, the burial was again photographed. It exhibited the fol-
lowing : [None of this is discernible in the photograph] .
"Over the left cheek were what seemed to be small rolls of
fabric.
"A garment of cloth, adhering closely to the bones, extended
from the neck to the ankles. This was yellowish in appearance &
originally had probably been white. A twisted black rope having
the appearance of yarn, extended from the left breast downward
to the waist and around it, and possibly it once extended to and
around the neck. A similar rope extended from the middle to the
right across the right breast. An untwisted rope, having the
appearance of a uniform hank of yarn, extended down between
the legs from the edge of what seemed a woven kilt half-way to
the knees. The woven kilt referred to extended from the pelvis
downward for a distance of 7 inches maximum. Its material
seemed to be of somewhat coarser weave than the dress and may
have been an undergarment. Around the upper part of each leg
was a binding of yarn-like strings, & a similar binding was above
the knees. From ankles to knees, under the cloth of the long dress,
was a fabric similar to that of the kilt or short skirt. No remains of
moccasins were apparent.
"Under baskets H was a long prayer-stick {r), and other
prayer-sticks were along the right side and (a short one) at the
pelvis.
"Mixed with the general sacrifice of pottery vessels were part
of a clay bell (s) and a rude clay figurine [t). Pieces of yellow ochre
were found in the grave {it).
"The right arm of the skeleton was at the right side; the left
arm was on the pelvis. Skel. in bad condition, skull greatly
210 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
contorted by pressure of earth and stones." [Since none of this
skeleton was saved, Hrdlicka did not check the field identification
of adult female. Pottery identified at the Museum of the American
Indian included Kechipawan Polychrome, Matsaki Polychrome,
Matsaki Brown-on-buff, Hawikuh Polychrome, and Hawikuh
Glaze-on-red.]
Burial 216 (first part probably in Skinner's hand). "Adult
[Hodge has added 'male, with 6 lumbar vertebrae'], at length
on back, headed E., depth 3 J feet. At left of head fragments of a
broken bowl (A) and about neck and on left side to left elbow
necklace of seed beads (b) of which a large quantity were found.
[From here on the notes are in Hodge's hand.] At left elbow a
pottery pipe (c) . Fabric of twisted strings on left arm & shoulder,
much decayed. The right hand of the skeleton was on pelvis, the
left hand at side. On the chest and the bones of the left hand, some
sacred glistening black paint and a small quantity of red paint (d) ;
extending from the left hip across left leg, the fragments of several
arrowshafts with three points, detached, at the end toward the
hip (e) ; on the left knee, a chipped knife with remnant of skin
(deerskin ?) handle (/) ; at left elbow a piece of matting (h) ; just
above right knee a piece of iron {i). Fragments of decayed wood in
conjunction with the large knife referred to (/) may have been
the handle. Over the chest was half of a small bowl (j). At the
right side, from pelvis down, were the much decayed remnants of
what appeared to have been a bow. Over lower legs were two large
sherds only of a decorated water-jar. All our Indians agreed that
this person was a Priest of the Bow." [Two vessels from this grave
were in the Museum collections and were identified as Matsaki
Polychrome, and Matsaki Brown-on-buff.]
Burial 230 (in Hodge's hand). "Adult (woman), headed E.,
depth 8', body extended, right hand on pelvis, left at side, head
turned downward on left shoulder. Under the body was a mat,
and over it another {a), covering from head to knees. On both mats
were quantities of squash-seeds (6), and on the upper one were
remains of what was probably boiled squash. Quantities of corn
also were present on the upper mat from neck to below hips.
Between legs was a woman's loin-cloth of bark (c), and at the left
arm were some prayer-sticklike sticks, uncolored (d). From the
hips to the head were several bowls (e-g), one of them being
directly over the head and another upright just over the head; all
of these had been broken by a hewe stone [h) [slab for cooking
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 211
wafer bread] and a mano (i) thrown in on top of the pottery about
the head and the stones themselves broken. At the back of the
head and at the chin, where they probably had fallen from the top
of the head were two bezoars such as are often found as head
ornaments (j). At the right arm and the right leg were bark
torches (?) (k), and at the back of the head a bunch of string-like
material (I) that may have tied the back hair. The skeleton was
very much decayed, but the skull, protected by a bowl, was
preserved. There were no other personal ornaments. On the chest,
hips, and lower legs respectively were three baskets (m) that had
contained much corn on cob and which had been thrown in,
evidently, with the pottery. In the basket on the hips were two
bone heads {n, o). A floor and hair brush was at the left arm (p).
At the right shoulder, in a basket, was a gourd dipper (q). The
bones were covered with the customary fabric (r)." [Vessels from
this grave, identified in the Museum, were of Matsaki Polychrome,
Hawikuh Polychrome, and Hawikuh Polychrome transitional from
Matsaki Polychrome.]
Burial 5g6 (in Hodge's hand). "Adult skeleton, headed E.,
4 feet down, immediately beneath infant skel. No. 595. The grave
had been cut through a thin stratum of ashes 20 inches below
surface. The grave was only 16" wide. The body lay extended on
its back, the hands over the pelvis. Along and over the left
side skel. were several bowls, all but one greatly broken (596-597),
as well as sherds of a jar or jars, scattered from hips to feet. The
body had been fully clothed, and quantities of decayed food
material were under and over the skeleton. About the hips, in
addition to woven cloth and what appeared to be tanned skin,
was a grass-like woven girdle, much resembling the matting found
in so many of the graves, with a woven band of the same material
attached, all decayed beyond recovery & protected by inverted
bowl sherds. There were also traces of small sticks, but their use
was not identifiable on account of decay. About and under the
head was what had evidently been a pillow of strings, having the
appearance of wool. The bones were greatly decayed and the
skull crushed." [The three vessels from this grave examined in the
Museum were of Matsaki Polychrome.]
Burial 816 (in Hodge's hand). See Plate 29, c. "Skeleton of
adult, directed NNW-SSE, body extended on back, headed NNW,
left arm at side but above level of chest ; right hand at pelvis. Over
chest a white bowl with a dance figure within ([field number] 816) ;
14*
212 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
at right wrist a small decorated jar (817), within which was a plain
red spoon (818). At left side three quartz crystals, a small black
polished stone, and some turquoise settings and white paint, all
probably the contents of a medicine-bag of skin, of w^hich frag-
ments seemed to remain (819). Within the bowl were several con-
cretions which Ben [a Zuni] says were placed in the bowl as
medicine (819 J). This the Zunis agree was a medicine man on
account of the presence of the quartz crystals and the medicine-
bowl [medicine-stone?] within the bowl." [The skeleton was not
saved and the field identification of age and sex not checked by
Hrdlicka. At the Museum of the American Indian the collections
include a vessel from this grave, a Kechipaw^an Polychrome bowl,
with the "dance figure." (see Fig. 47, h)]
B^irial 86^ (in Hodge's hand). "Adult skeleton, 38" below
surface, headed S. E., body extended S. E.-N. W. and lying on
right side. All bones greatly decayed. Within the bend of the right
elbow were the paraphernalia of a medicine-man, consisting of
5 eagle claw's, 5 concretions, 2 projectile points, red paint, and
several pieces of turquoise, with traces of what appeared to be
corn-meal. At the right hand a small pot-sherd under which were
bones of a very small bird. The legs were greatly flexed backward,
and under the left knee was part of a bowl. The left arm was
doubled under the body, with hand under pelvis. Several small
flint chips found scattered." [The bowl is of Matsaki Polychrome;
the skeleton was not sent to Hrdlicka for identification.]
Burial 8yo (in Hodge's hand). "Adult ['male' inserted later by
Hodge], 5' 8'' down headed E., body extended on back, chin
slightly forward on chest, ankles level with top of skull, feet
directly upward — as if grave were dug too short. Left arm at side;
right arm at side with hand on right pelvis. Scattered from head
to feet the sherds of a black cooking-pot or probably of two
cooking pots, and also of two broken bowls. Extending from left
shoulder to middle of left shin, what appears to have been a
narrow ceremonial bow; from right hip downward, 13", a war-club
with a wooden handle and a round iron head, greatly disintegrated,
the head-end directed toward the skull. On right [Hodge's under-
lining] a bow-guard made of seeds of shell and juniper seed beads,
fastened in rows so that the two kinds of beads alternated and
extended in rows lengthwise around the wrist. The body had been
clothed from the upper part of the head to the feet, and parts of
corn-cobs and a single seed which the Indians recognized as
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 21 3
watermelon, were scattered over the trunk. At left hip an irregular
ball of unbaked clay, and just above it, a long projectile point, and
\\ith it a flint knife. Next to the knife, nearer to the shoulder, was
the notched end of an arrow shaft, and under left side of head a
piece of potter's clay. On left wrist was a bone-bead bow-guard
consisting of 13 beads, preserved intact. On the ankles a bone
knife. Under the war-club was a deposit of pollen." [Hrdlicka
identified this skeleton as male, aged 30, wdth an undeformed skull.
The Museum of the American Indian has a Hawikuh Polychrome
bowl from this burial.]
Burial gii (in Hodge's hand). "Adult male [identified by
Hrdlicka as female] skel., headed S. E., body extended, with
feet and legs trending upward so that feet were considerably
higher than the head. Right ankle crossed over left. Right forearm
brought upward, with hand at shoulder; left arm at side with
forearm and hand on abdomen. The body was fully clothed with
woven fabric and a cord extended from in front of left eye to right
ear. At left shoulder, regularly laid, a number of small smoothed
twigs and inside of right elbow what the Indians call kwisuiu-hlana
[the handwriting here is difficult to make out], a medicine used
for sheep, made of feathers & fastened together at end with a
tiponi. The body was covered with matting and on it placed much
corn on cob, & squash as shown by the rind. A stone knife and a
small arrowpoint on legs. A small basket was on chest. There was
no pottery. An earthenware penis was found within the pelvic
arch." [Although the U. S. National Museum records listed this
individual as female, a re-examination in 1964 established un-
equivocally that it is male.]
Burial gi^ (notes consist of five typed pages pasted into field
notebook). "Skeleton 915 was that of an adult female [Hodge has
added '(Hrdlicka)']. It was located in the northern cemetery and
was lying on its back in an extended position. The head was toward
the southeast ^^dth the face inclined southwest ward. The arms were
at the sides of the body the left hand resting against the upper part
of the right femur. The body was 6' -5" below the surface.
"The following description gives the positions of the various
objects found with the body; they are not treated according to
the various levels but in the order in which they were found during
the process of uncovering the skeleton.
"Over the chest was a large cooking bowl (915-A) and six inches
over it w^as a deposit of squash seeds. A few inches N. W. of 915-A.
214 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
and over the right arm was a bowl of cream ware with red and
black decoration (915-B). In the bowl was a fragmentary, cooking
jar (915-C) and over this were pieces of two smooth-surfaced
manos, an irregular stone with worked edge, a pebble pottery-
polisher, and a square smoothing stone. (915-D). A few inches
west of bowl 915-B were the missing pieces of the two manos
before mentioned. Just west of these there was a large crude mano
and under this a deposit consisting of a layer of fibrous wood to
the under part of which a fiat ceremonial stick with rounded edge,
was attached (915-E). When removed the stick showed that it had
been painted green, on both sides ; it had a hole through the center
and had been oval in shape, near this stick were several other
smaller ones but they had decayed to such an extent that they
could not be preserved. With this deposit were medicinal roots
which will be treated later. Directly under the ceremonial sticks
and roots was a small deposit of corn cobs which seemed to have
no connection with the cobs that had been thrown over the body.
Further uncovering showed that this deposit was over the central
part of the right femur and six inches above it. Northwest of and
on the level of the rough-surfaced mano was a smooth-surfaced
metate which had been broken, the other portion being directly
under its S. W. corner. Under the upper portion was a bowl that
contained a thick layer of compact material which had the ap-
pearance of clay (Bowl-915-F). Southwest of the upper portion of
the metate and partly covering one corner of it was a large,
rough-surfaced metate of volcanic scoria; this one was perfect.
Under the scoria metate was a bowl lying on edge (915-G) and
east of it and almost touching it was another bowl filled with what
appeared to be yellow meal. (Bowl-915-H). Near the southwestern
edge of bowl 915-H was a deposit of paint stone (915-I) which,
from its position had probably been contained in a bag or tied up
in a package.
"Returning to the head portion a large, rough mano was found
east of the food bowl, 915-A. Under, and touching the base of
915-A was a fragmentary jar with red and black decoration (915- J)
over which were the remains of a loosely woven basket. Under
915- J was a bowl that rested on its base (915-K). Among the frag-
ments of 915- J were found the fragments of a gourd vessel. Vessels
915- J and K were just east of and almost touching the skull. Over
the skull was another bowl (915-L) and above this one was another
that stood in an upright position (915-M). Bowl 915-L rested on
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 215
the skull. Crossing the body from left to right of the skeleton were
two squared sticks which were identified ?tS the uprights of a
shrine ; they crossed the body at the pelvis ; the end of the eastern-
most one rested against the side of bowl 915-M. Below the two
long poles and lying parallel with them was the remains of a large
piece of wood over a yard in length and six inches broad. It was
decayed to such an extent that it could not be identified but Pedro
pronounced it to be of the same material that was found over the
ceremonial stick 915-E. and that it had formed one of the uprights
of a shrine. Partly under bowl 915-L was a large scoria mano and
over bowl 915-M there were fragments of a basket. Partly over the
southeastern edge of bowl 915-M was a large fragment of a cooking
pot. One side of bowl 915-M had been crushed by having been
placed over the skull. The lower of the two shrine sticks before
mentioned, started at a point fifteen inches above the skull. These
sticks were squared and the surface had been painted. They were
one by one and a half inches and about four feet long. At several
points the form could be determined but the entire interior of the
stick had disappeared, the painted exterior being merely a shell.
Over the end of the lower stick there was a deposit of broken
cooking vessels (915-N). The lower one was a large cooking jar and
in this, in layers, had been placed fragments of a decorated food
bowl that had been used as a cooking vessel. Over this deposit was
the end of the upper shrine stick; this one, with the other running
parallel to it, extending downward, with the lower ends over the
pelvis. West of the deposit of cooking vessels (915-M) there was a
large piece of plaster from a house wall ; it was three inches thick,
Several similar pieces, though thinner, were found over the upper
part of the grave at this level.
''Investigation of the lower part of the body showed that there
had been a small basket over the right pelvic bone. In the pelvis
the fetus of a very young child was found. Over the upper part of
the body, crossing it from right to left was a layer of cord strands.
They did not seem to be part of any garment or ornament but
had the appearance of having been laid on in hanks. Between the
second and third ribs on the right side were four small animal
bones laid side by side. Between the seventh and eighth ribs on the
right side were two flattened balls ; probably from the stomach of
a deer; a third one was found on the second vertebra above the
sacrum. On the breast, resting partly on the vertebrae near the
lower end of the sternum, which had fallen to the left of the
2l6 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
vertebrae, was a turquoise mosaic comb. Having rested on the
vertebrae it had been crushed by pressure and was in a frag-
mentary condition. (915-O).
"Under the head was a thick layer of matting. On the left side
of the skull a piece of scalp with hair well preserved was found and
there was a similar piece just above the nasal bone. At the base
of the skull there was a mass of human hair. Under the head and
shoulder portion was a layer of stones and potsherds, placed with
their fiat surfaces up. The area covered by the stones being 38
inches broad and 14 inches from top to bottom. Crossing the upper
part of the chest, from shoulder to shoulder, was a broad band
made of human-hair cord. It was over an inch in width and 18
inches long. Among the left ribs was a hair-ball, similar to those
found between the right ribs. Under the cloth layer below the
bones of the neck there was a rectangular, fiat tablet of pottery.
"Scattered over the greater part of the body were fragments
of cooking vessels, one of which has a 'Kill-hole' in the side. The
grave was lined with matting, the sides of which were folded over
the body. Over this was a layer of cloth which had evidently
formed the wrapping of the body. The bones were lying in what
seemed to be a bed of yellow meal and corn cobs, scattered par-
ticularly over the upper part of the body, showed that a great deal
of corn had been buried with the body.
"Scattered through the debris and earth with which the skele-
ton was covered were the following objects — 6 shaped pieces of
pottery (discs, etc.) 2 bone beads; 2 arrowpoints; 4 waterworn
pebbles ; 2 worked pieces of soft stone ; 2 pieces of gypsum ; 6 bone
awls; I antler implement, possibly a fiaker; i cut bird bone;
I piece of a bivalve shell ; i large fragment from side of a pitcher
of black and white ware, probably from the ruins just north of
camp or from Tumatoptan; 2 pieces of crudely modeled, unbaked
clay; and 12 flint chips.
"The body of Burial No. 915 was that of a medicine priestess
and many of the medicines and the shrine poles buried with her
were those used in the curative ceremonies for rattlesnake bite.
The two long, squared poles were those used as part of the shrine
and the long mass of fibrous wooden material (915-E-1) were stalks
of the Datura metaloides which were placed in an upright position
as part of the shrine. Portions of it were also used in making a
decoration that was rubbed on the part that had been bitten. The
root that was found with the deposit, and fragments of which
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 217
were scattered over the body, is that of the Datura (915-E-2). It
is used to rub on the bite and is called chi-kwi-mi-ne. The thin
oval tablet (915-E) was a part of the shrine paraphernalia. It was
fastened to a stick about eighteen inches high. In its entirety it
represented the sun. The body color was blue. Encircling the outer
edge were four colors in the order named, beginning at the edge —
yellow, red, white, and black. Inside the circle formed by these
colors a small bear was painted. This stick is called Ishina-kats-
ikwa-ne. Passing through the hole in the center of this disc and
tied to a small painted stick at the rear, with a Ya-mu-ne was a
cotton string, the length of one's arm, and to the opposite end of
this string were tied four feathers. At the extreme end was an
eagle feather; next came one from a duck; then a jay (Mai-ya)
feather ; and finally one from a Kye-wia.
"A few inches from the skull (East) a fragment of a cooking
vessel was found and in it was the fruit of the large yucca, called
nowe mupa-lo-ne, which is the only food that may be eaten for
four days after one is bitten by a rattlesnake.
"Another root, not used in snake ceremonies, was found in the
grave. (915-P). (Akwa-ahona) . It is used in making a drink which
is taken in cases of stomach ache."
[The vessels from this grave that were examined in the Museum
of the American Indian consisted of three of Matsaki Polychrome,
three of Matsaki Brown-on-buff, and a plain red jar of undeter-
mined type. Hrdlicka identified the skeleton as that of a female
aged 60, with undeformed skull and with six lumbar vertebrae.]
Burial gi6 (in Hodge's hand). "Burial of adult, headed S. E.,
lying extended on back, arms at sides, head normal, lower legs
crossing the feet of No. 912. Over the body were numerous
accompaniments of pottery, all broken [none found in Museum
collection], and scattered among the bones were numerous small
pieces of green paint, while one large piece was on chest. Two small
pieces of bark were at right side of head, as also was an obsidian
arrow point. On the feet was a fine bone awl. Much corn, squash-
seed, and kushutsi (small black) seeds were on upper part of body.
Under & projecting from left side of head was a thin spatulate
wooden object. The upper part of body was laid on matting. The
pelvis of No. 917 almost touched the upper part of the skull of
No. 916. Over upper part of body and skull were parts of a hewe
stone [slab for cooking wafer bread], much broken, and a large
piece was on skull. Over skull also had been a basket, but only
2l8 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
tracery remained. On the right chest were two small pieces of bark
and a bluebird feather. At the feet was a mold of clay ( ? ) which
the Zunis say was an etowe used on altars, but which more prob-
ably was merely a loaf of potter's clay. Above feet was a miniature
dipper." [This skeleton was not among those sent to the U. S.
National Museum.]
Burial g2y (three pages of typed notes are inserted in the field
notebook, as follows).
"Skeleton 927 was that of an adult and was found in the
northern cemetery at a depth of 88 inches. It was lying in an
extended position with its head toward the southeast. The face
was inclined toward the northeast. The arms were on a line with
the sides of the body. Over the lower part of the legs and feet,
and five inches above them, was a smooth-surfaced metate lying
with the grinding face upward and on a line with the grave (927-B).
Two inches S. W. of 927-B was a mano (927-C) which extended
behind a metate which was standing on its edge (927-D). At its
base was a mano, also on edge (927-E). The metate on edge and
the two manos acted as a lining for this part of the grave ; at the
base of 927-D was a cooking jar (927-F) and a corrugated jar
(927-G). Both were broken and the fragments scattered. Two feet
northeast of 927-D was decorated bowl (927-A). It was inverted.
A few inches S. W. of 927-A was a fragmentary bowl (927-H). It
was below the level of 927-A and was over the right femur. North-
east of the right knee and partly covering it was a large fragment
of a cooking vessel containing pinon nuts. Under it was a layer of
wood fiber similar to stramonium [Jimson weed] stalks. Resting
on and extending the length of the left femur was a layer of
stramonium stalks crushed flat. It extended from the femur south-
westward to the mano, 927-E. Northeast of the pelvis and six
inches from it was a broken mano ; the two pieces being together.
"Over the left breast and extending upward on a line with the
backbone was a bunch of slender twigs that were used in making
baskets. Over these and extending in the same direction were
three narrow pieces of wood similar to narrow finishing battens.
Along the grave S. W. of the skull were several bunches of grass
such as is now used in making brooms, etc. It is called Ya-Pi-su-
to-pe-pe. The name of the basket splints being Ma-tsu-hli-tsi-i-le.
The upper part of the grave was covered with a layer of bark.
At the back of the skull and partly covering it was a fragment
bowl (927-I). Resting on the southeastern part of this bowl were
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 219
two antler bodkins (927- J). In bowl 927-I were squash seeds.
Within an inch of the occiput and on the same level as its base
was a thin, circular, perforated disc which has the appearance of
a spindle whorl (927-K) ; it was lying flat. Under it was a mass of
corn cobs. S. W. of the skull and against the wall of the grave was
a long, flat stick (927-L) which may have been a batten. Against
the same side of the grave but S. E. of the stick was a small basket
containing seeds, squash seeds, and corn cobs. Over the skull was
another tray basket and in it were layers of bark and a small
bundle of rushes. Almost touching the upper jaw was a rounded-
end paint stone (927-M) covered with white paint, N. W. of and
touching this stone was a fragment of a mano which overlapped
the end of a perfect mano — all three stones were on a line with
the grave. Partly over the middle of the right humerus was a
compact mass resulting from the decomposition of, perhaps, a
skin wrapping. It was surrounded with a layer of cloth. In the
center of this mass, lying in some corded material were the bones
of what must have been a fetal child. Under the mass containing
the bones was a layer of human hair which was covered with a
layer of white meal. Between the lower ribs and the backbone, on
the right side was a layer of what may have been feather-cloth.
With this piece were a num.ber of turkey and bluebird feathers and
fragments of sticks to which they were probably fastened. The
skull was surrounded with corncobs. A mass of human hair ex-
tended down both sides of the body, that on the left side being
perfectly preserved and much of it was saved.
"Under the hair and matting on the right side, and under the
place where the fetus was found was a bezoar from the stomach
of a deer, and in the mass of hair near the right arm was a second,
but larger hair ball. In the hair at the left of the skull and about
six inches from it was a wooden comb lying with the face part
down. It was not decorated in any way. Parallel with the left arm
and near the side of the grave was a mass of human-hair cord
sixteen inches in length. From its position it was probably attached
to the hair of the body. Over the right ribs there was a mouse nest
and in it were a number of pieces of cord which had probably been
associated with the feather objects previously mentioned as sim-
ilar pieces were found with the feathers. Near the thin sticks on
the left side of the body was the point of a stone knife. Scattered
through the soil that covered the body were many flint chips and
one bone bead." [Vessels in the Museum of the American Indian
220 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
from this grave were of Matsaki Polychrome and of brownware
\vith exterior poHshed over coils and the interior smudged. The
skeleton was identified by Hrdlicka as a female 24 to 25 years old
with undeformed skull.]
Burial g43 (in Hodge's hand). "Cremation, 114 inches below
surface, deposited in a decorated jar, killed, covered with an
inverted bowl, also killed [both of these are Matsaki Polychrome].
With the incinerated bones were also deer bones and parts of
antler, and also a small frame-like pendant of shell ( ? ) perforated.
Outside the jar, almost touching the rim of its bowl cover, were
4 arrowshaft smoothers and also burned animal bones and char-
coal in quantity, likewise some bone tubes. All these objects had
been burnt."
Burial gy8 (in Hodge's hand). See Plate 30, d. "Skeleton of
adult, 48" down in Eastern cemetery; headed E., body extended
on back, legs flexed to S., right hand on abdomen, left hand at
left hip. At right side of upper right arm, seven arrowpoints [a),
at right hip two pieces of green paint (a-kwa-hli) ; below right hip
a broken decorated bowl {b) ; six inches to right a whole, small,
cooking-pot (c) . Over the feet and from right of the knees to skull,
various deer antlers. The Zunis say this was a naahi mosona. One
piece of antler stood upright at the feet. The antlers had more the
appearance of having been thrown rather than placed in the grave.
On the right wrist was a small wristlet of twisted strings to which
had been attached several white shell beads (ko-ha-kwa) ." [This
skeleton was not examined by Hrdlicka; the Museum of the
American Indian has one vessel from the grave, a Matsaki Poly-
chrome variant with white used in the decoration.]
Burial ggj (in Hodge's hand). "Cremation, 105" down, in a
small cooking-pot covered by a large bowl, right-side-tip, and con-
siderably tilted [this bowl was red-slipped, too weathered and
worn to be identified as to type, but with traces of black and white
decoration on the exterior]. The deposit was made in a small pit,
& surrounding the vessels was a quantity of charcoal, beans, &
corn. As in other cases with the cremation deposits in the Northern
Cemetery, the burial was made in the original hard-pan. The ash
heap, which commenced only 8" above the charcoal and corn, was
in undisturbed strata & continued, with alternating thin sand
strata, to the surface. The remains were those of a child. Among
the bones were three kinds of burnt shell beads, and even more
were found in the charcoal & corn outside the vessels."
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 221
Burial 1002 (in Hodge's hand). "Skel. of infant, 19" in length,
35" beneath surface, Eastern cemetery. The skull was toward
the east, body extended on back, all bones considerably decayed
[and not saved]. At neck several kohakwa and tsuili shell beads
that had formed a necklace {a). On chest, extending from shoulders
to pelvis, lengthwise of body, three prayer-sticks, two of them
broken by workmen, the other with a string seemingly passed
through it and with cord-wrapping about middle, saved intact. The
pointed ends of the other two have the appearance of having been
cut with an iron knife, but Pedro denies this. There was no pottery,
"Pedro describes the prayer-sticks as follows. The two upper-
most ones were male and female and had been tied together. They
are known respectively as tsu-mt-te-an-hak-ta (b) and a-we-heu-
yan-hak-ta [c) . Beneath these was the one with the cord wrapping
and with the cords projecting from the two ends — this is ii-kya-
hai-a-we po-an-ne, and to it five eagle-feathers had been attached (a) .
The prayer-sticks {te-le-ki-na-we) had been placed on the body by
the father of the child, who was a medicine-man. There is no doubt,
says Pedro, that the sticks had been cut with an arrowpoint."
SUMMARY OF ARTIFACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE GRAVES
Since, as has already been pointed out, this volume does not
attempt to add to Hodge's notes and manuscript material all the
data that might be extracted from studies he had not yet initiated,
such as the analysis of non-ceramic artifacts sent back from the
field to the Museum of the American Indian, the numerous and
varied objects accompanying the Hawikuh burials will be only
summarized here on the basis of the field records. These records
make it impossible to be sure which specimens are now in the
Museum, and in most instances descriptive details are lacking or
incomplete in the field notes, so that, for example, weaves of
basketry or types of stone axes cannot be distinguished. Never-
theless, it has seemed worthwhile to present the following sum-
maries, in the conviction that the data are valuable as additions
to our knowledge of burial practices in late prehistoric and early
historic time, a period during which there has been a paucity of
information for even the better known parts of the Southwest.
We have not grouped these artifacts in the traditional cate-
gories of material (stone, bone, antler, pottery, etc.), even though
this appears to have been Hodge's intention, to judge from the
222 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
only reports on artifacts that he completed, one on turquoise and
one on bone. Instead we have grouped the artifacts on the basis
of presumed functions, a necessarily somewhat arbitrary matter,
but a scheme that we hope gives a little more meaning and
usefulness to the data.
Artifacts Related to Hunting and Fighting
Lucky accidents of preservation account for the presence of
many wooden artifacts that otherwise seldom occur in open sites,
even in the relative aridity of the Southwest. Such objects usually
were found in fragmentary condition, and the observations re-
corded in the field notes are unfortunately brief and seldom as
detailed as might be wished. Nevertheless, such information as we
are able to summarize here are a valuable addition to the archaeo-
logical record, even though incomplete in many respects. Par-
ticularly through the preservation of such objects as bows and
arrows and the survival of textiles the data from the Hawikuh
graves provide a broader view of ancient Zuiii material culture
than has heretofore been available.
Bows. Wooden bows, in various stages of decay, were identified
in eight of the graves (all inhumations). Such details as are recorded
follow; because of poor preservation and absence of details in the
notes, it is unknown how positive these identifications are.
Inhumations without chronologically diagnostic accompani-
ments : (i) Adult male ; a bow 4 feet long with a maximum width
of 2 J inches lay above the body, and was "covered wdth sacred
black glittering paint" ; the grave also included a miniature wooden
' 'potato masher' ' warclub and a wooden obj ect that may have been a
miniature bow. (2) Adult male, ''at left hip a bow too rotten to save."
Inhumations with Matsaki Polychrome : (i) Adult of undeter-
mined sex, with a bow resting across body from left knee to
shoulder, the grave also containing reed arrows. (2) Adult of un-
determined sex, with bow resting on chest lengthwise. (3) Adult
male with bow fragments beside right leg and hip, and also arrows.
Inhumation with Hawikuh Polychrome: adult of undeter-
mined sex with possible remains of bow^ diagonally across body
from right shoulder to left side.
Inhumations with European artifacts : (i) Adult male, with short
bow over left leg. (2) Adult male, with bow lying from left shoulder
to left shin, the grave also containing a warclub and arrowshafts.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 223
In addition a "bow cover" is recorded, preserved by only its
impression, for another inhumation associated with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome, an individual of undetermined age and sex.
Arrows and Arrowshafts. Seven of the inhumations contained
wooden objects that were probably arrows or arrowshafts, identifi-
cations that are strengthened by the association in five instances
of remains of bows. The details available from the field notes are
as follows.
Inhumations, without chronologically diagnostic associations:
(i) Adult male, with two thin, round sticks along upper right arm,
10 and i8 inches long, and several small sticks ; probably arrows,
but no bow present. (2) "Priest of the Bow" (see field notes for
Burial 6, quoted at beginning of this chapter), a burial which
included a mass of arrowshafts, (3) Adult male, with an un-
recorded number of reed arrows with hardwood foreshafts lying
by the left hip, but no bow present.
Inhumations, with Matsaki Polychrome: (i) Adult, of undeter-
mined sex, with reed arrows extending from left knee to shoulder.
(2) Adult male, mth fragments of several arrowshafts lying across left
leg and hip, and three stone arrow points, detached, at ends on hip.
Inhumations, with European artifacts: (i) Adult male, with
splintered sticks lying over legs, possibly arrows. (2) Adult male,
with the notched end of an arrowshaft lying on the left hip.
Chipped Stone Knives and Points. Although 52 graves contained
a "chipped knife," an "arrowpoint," or other chipped tool prob-
ably designed for hafting, few details are given of them in the
notes and no classification on the basis of either form or function
is possible, except for the few points in place on arrowshafts or
arrow foreshafts.
Most of the chipped tools came from inhumations but a few
were found with cremations, Their distribution in terms of chro-
nological associations is as follows :
Cremations Inhumations Total
No datable association 2 20 22
Heshotauthla Polychrome
association i 34
Kwakina-Kechipawan Poly-
chrome association 3 3
Matsaki Polychrome association 3 16 19
European artifact association 4 4
224 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Most of the skeletons with which these implements were found
were adult (31 recorded), but two were of adolescents and five of
children (14 others not recorded) . For only a few of these skeletons
was sex recorded, ten as male and four as female. Position in the
grave varied greatly, with specimens recorded as follows : at head
or neck, fifteen; at feet or along legs, ten; on or beside trunk, six;
at hips, seven; by arm, three; scattered, two; for nine others, not
recorded. One ''arrowhead" apparently formed part of a woman's
bone necklace, and two others were believed, from their position,
to have been worn at the neck. One specimen was inside the mouth
of a child. One adult (sex unknown) had ''2 projectile points"
among what was believed to be the paraphernalia of a medicine
man (Burial 865, quoted above). Another, a burial containing
several antlers, had seven "arrowpoints" at the right side of the
right upper arm (Burial 978, quoted above). Burial 28 had two
large points among the contents of a "medicine bag" at the waist
(quoted above).
In three instances, points were more or less in place on partially
preserved arrows. In Burial 113 (quoted above) were found an
undisclosed number of ' 'reed arrows with hard wood f oreshaf ts at
left hip . . . [with] 8 tiny flint points ... in place but with attach-
ments decayed." Burial 216 (quoted above) had "several arrow-
shafts with three points, detached," lying across the left leg, with
points at the left hip. Burial 6 had seven small arrowpoints near
the neck and left shoulder, and three larger arrowpoints with "a.
mass of arrow shafts" under six rounded sticks, lying along the
left side. Each of these is suggestive of complete arrows in a
quiver or bag hanging at the left side, although none has an actual
container recorded in the field notes.
In addition to the shaped chipped artifacts just discussed, there
are recorded for a few graves flint "chips" or "flakes," probably
scrapers and cutting tools made of fortuitously-shaped pieces of
stone. It is probable that in some instances these were in the fill
thrown into the grave, and were not intentionally placed with the
burial. Since neither their form and function nor their positions
in the graves is known, it seems unnecessary to tabulate their
occurrence here.
Chtbs. Two inhumations, both of adult males and neither of
them with any chronologically significant associations, included
clubs. In one was a wooden "miniature 'potato masher' warclub."
In the other grave was another club of potato masher shape, and
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 225
also a stone club, described as "semi-perforated" with a wooden
handle.
An inhumation associated with European artifacts, an adult
male, had an iron "warclub" lying at the right hip.
Net. The field notes mention a net of "checkerweave" at the
feet of the inhumation of an individual of undetermined age and
sex, in association with Hawikuh Polychrome. Use for snaring
wild game is possible, although not demonstrable.
Wrist-guards. Because of the inherent interest of these artifacts
and because of some discrepancies in the record, it is worth
quoting Hodge's account in Hawikuh Bonework (1920 h, pp.
125-26).
We now reach a class of hollow bone objects which if size
were the only criterion, might likewise be classed either as
tubes or as beads. Fortunately the use of some of these, at
least, is known, for they were found in varying numbers on
the wrists of skeletons, in one case on the wrist of an individ-
ual whom the Zufii at once identified as that of a Priest of
the Bow (Apihlanshiwani) by reason of the character of the
artifacts that accompanied the burial. [Actually, although
wrist-guards were found with Burials 3 and 5, none is recorded
with Burial 6, which Hodge states in his notes was identified
by a Zufii workman as a "Priest of the Bow."]
These wrist-guard beads or tubes are all shorter than the
longest of those that had been strung as necklaces, and vary
in length from an inch to an inch and a half. Altogether six
bone wrist-guards were found, four on the left wrist, one on
the right, and one not determined. The component pieces of
the respective wrist-guards number respectively six, seven,
nine, eleven, thirteen, and eighteen. In form these were of two
varieties — plain cyUndrical (pi. XXXII), and flatfish (pi.
XXXIII, e), the latter drilled centrally through the shghtly
convex side. One of the plain wrist-guards (pi. XXXII) is
illustrated exactly as found [thirteen parallel tubes, appar-
ently arranged for photography, not photographed in the
field — the number of tubes identifies this as Burial 870].
It may be mentioned here that wrist-guards or wrist
ornaments were not always of bone, one being found on the
right wrist of another Priest of the Bow, made of shell and
juniper-seed beads in alternating rows [this also is Burial 870].
X5
226 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The field record includes the following wrist-guards or speci-
mens tentatively identified as wrist-guards :
Burial 837, an inhumation without chronologically diagnostic
associations, adult male, "on the left wrist small worked bones that
evidently had formed a wrist-guard" ; also in the grave were a bone
whistle, and "about a dozen shell beads" on the right wrist.
Burial 3 (the contents summarized at the beginning of this
chapter), an inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome, adult male,
**on left wrist a bow string protector composed of 9 cylindrical
bone beads" arranged parallel to each other, as shown in an
accompanying sketch in the notes.
Burial 5, an inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome, adult of
undetermined sex, "on left wrist was a bow-string guard of 18 bone
beads."
Burial 96, inhumations with Matsaki Polychrome, adult male,
wrist-guard of eleven bone beads on right wrist.
Burial 843, an inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome, adult of
undetermined sex, wrist-guard of seven bone beads on left wrist,
"found close together and transversely of the wrist bones."
Burial 199, inhumation associated with European material
(iron hook, possibly a belt buckle), adult male, "at the right wrist
were traces of fabric upon which were sewn rows of black barrel-
shaped beads, possibly a wrist protector"; ornamentation rather
than the protection of the wrist from a bow string seems probable,
particularly since the skeleton was lavishly supplied with turquoise,
bone, and shell beads forming ear-loops, at least one necklace,
and possibly decoration on clothing.
Burial 870 (see field notes quoted in full above), inhumation
associated with European material (iron-headed war club), adult
male, wrist-guard of thirteen bone tubes found intact on left wrist ;
also ornament around right wrist of shell and juniper beads.
Eliminating the objects not made of bone tubes arranged in
parallel, we are left with six specimens, as Hodge reported, all but
one on the left wrist, and the individual represented by Burial 96
possibly left-handed and therefore needing to protect his right wrist.
Four are with adult males, and two with adults for which sex is not
recorded.
Artifacts Related to Farming
Digging Sticks. Above the inhumation of an adolescent of
undetermined sex, in association with Matsaki Polychrome, the
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 227
field notes record "a long wooden object, probably a digging stick
or dibble, and part of another .... One lay about 8 inches above
the other and both extended N and S" — that is, parallel with the
skeleton.
Foods and Artifacts Related to Food Preparation
Corn. Foodstuffs were found in considerable variety and in
remarkable quantity in the Hawikuh burials. Corn was by far the
most abundant, recorded from about half of the cremations (pre-
served in most cases by charring) and from 13% of the inhumations
— in all, from 238 of the 996 Hawikuh graves. It was particularly
frequent in the "uncontained" cremations, those consisting of a
small pit dug into the ground to hold the burned remains of the
deceased, and usually accompanied by very few or no artifacts,
thus making a chronological assignment impossible in most cases.
Of these ' 'uncont ained' ' cremations, 69 % were accompanied by corn .
Of the 88 cremations placed chronologically by their association
with Matsaki Polychrome, 24% had corn; no particularly striking
differences were noted between the cremations with and without
corn, however.
In cremations the corn was usually burnt, although the notes
are not specific in many instances; in only three cremations is
unburnt corn mentioned. (For example, "Over the cremated bones
within the jar were the greatly decayed remnants of three ears
of corn," Burial 941). When the cremation was placed in a jar,
the corn was placed in the jar or ouside of it with about equal
frequency. It occurs both as kernels and on the cob, and occasion-
ally as meal. The amounts of corn in particular cremations are
recorded only in such terms as "a little," "a smaU quantity,"
"considerable," or "a large amount," but even when relatively
abundant did not apparently approach the amounts placed in
some inhumations.
Corn did not occur with inhumations earlier than those asso-
ciated with Matsaki Polychrome, probably because preservation
of perishables is poorer in the older graves. However, it may have
actually been absent, as these older graves tend to have fewer
associated materials of any sort than do the later ones. Corn was
present in 22% of the graves dated by Matsaki Polychrome, 47%
of those dated by Hawikuh Polychrome, and 22% of those con-
taining objects of European origin. As far as can be determined
15*
228 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
from the notes, the corn was most often in the form of cobs,
complete with kernels, although meal is specified in a few burials.
For examples, Burial 26 (which was without chronologically diag-
nostic associations) is described as " . . . completely covered with a
yellow layer of vegetal substance that may have been coarsely
ground corn but which was of pasty consistency when uncovered" ;
Burial 226 (also undated) had "... evidence of once soft food,
such as corn mush, from neck downw^ard over body" ; and Burial 9
in the Church had the "grave lined [with] white meal and body
covered 2 to 3" deep" — and no other artifacts accompanied this
adult of undetermined sex. There is one record of "indurated corn
pollen" (with Burial 744 [A], an adult female accompanied by an
infant and a fetus) at the base of a jar by the right thigh, associated
with a crystal, a black pebble, a concretion, and other objects of
possible religious significance.
The amount of corn varied, usually abundant, it is also
recorded several times as "traces." Corn cobs were often scattered
the length of the body but no exact amounts are recorded, although
for Burial 85 (associated with Matsaki Polychrome), corn Vv^as
"heaped over body, bushels of cobs remaining." Incidentally, there
is no record of any of this corn having been saved, or given any
examination as to size of cob, number of rows of kernels, etc.
The most frequent position of corn in the inhumations is in
a layer covering all or part of the skeleton. It is often recorded
merely as "covering" the body, or "over" it, [see PL 31,^), but
details are sometimes mentioned, such as covering the body from
head to pelvis, covering the upper half of the body, or at a partic-
ular location (at right side, under left arm, over chest, over head,
or between legs) . Rarely was corn found in a container ; a bowl is
mentioned five times, baskets three times (once, three baskets of
corn in a grave), and once the corn cobs were placed on the
matting W'hich covered the skeleton.
A comparison of inhumations with and without corn indicates
that it was relatively scarce in the graves of infants, children, and
adolescents (present in 13%). In contrast, it was much more abun-
dant in adult graves (46% of those of males, 32% of those of
females). This agrees with the general tendency for the graves of
adults to be more generously supplied with artifacts of all kinds
than those of sub-adults.
Other Vegetable Foods. No distinction is made in the field notes
among the various kinds of cucurbits; they are recorded as squash
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 229
seeds, or occasionally as pumpkin seeds or gourd seeds — distinc-
tions that cannot be regarded as significant. Cucurbit seeds came
from only two of the cremations; in one they were unburnt, as
was corn in the same cremation; in the other "some" squash seeds
occurred along with corn and beans in a cremation for which age
and sex are not recorded. Both of these were placed chronologi-
cally by the presence of Matsaki Polychrome.
Squash seeds were recorded for 41 inhumations (11 of them
not datable, one associated with Kechipawan Polychrome, 17
associated with Matsaki Polychrome, eight associated with Hawi-
kuh Polychrome, and four associated with European artifacts).
There were occasionally large quantities, more often "some" or
"a few." Their location is extremely variable : under the head, over
the body, at the feet, between the legs, or on the face. More
frequently than with corn, squash seeds were in a bowl or a basket
(Burial 686 included a Kechipawan Polychrome bowl containing
"remains of food which included squash seeds" and also a stone
knife and a bone bead ; with three other burials, according to the
field notes, squash seeds occurred in bowls ; two baskets containing
squash seeds are mentioned; and with one burial was a gourd
dipper of squash seeds). In addition, in Burial 196 (an adult male,
without datable pottery) "the hollow of the pelvis was entirely
filled with squash seeds"; Burial 902 (an adult male, without
datable pottery) had the "entire body thickly covered with corn,
and the face and chest with squash seeds"; Burial 185 (an adoles-
cent, associated with Matsaki Polychrome) had the "mouth full
of squash seeds." In one instance (Burial 230, quoted in full on
pp. 210-21 1) "boiled squash" was identified, and with Buriar742
(a cremation, undated) was "a small mass of decayed vegetal
material . . . which was very thin like thin-sliced pumpkin," placed
on top of a plain jar holding the cremation.
Charred remains of beans were found in 56 cremations, but no
beans are reported from inhumations, probably because they
would decay rapidly if not carbonized. Of the cremations with
beans, 43 were without chronologically diagnostic pottery and
13 were associated with Matsaki Polychrome. Quantity is rarely
indicated in the notes, although a few times such terms as "much"
or "a few" are used. Several entries are similar to the one for
Burial 808: "Without pottery or other accompaniment except the
customary corn and beans with] the bones." One tantalizing entry
is "two kinds of beans" without further details (Burial 1196).
230 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Pinyon nuts were found in seven cremations and in nine in-
humations, usually along with other foods, such as corn or squash,
but in a few graves they were the only food recorded. Quantity is
usually not specified, but Burial 927 A (the inhumation of an adult
female, associated with Matsaki Polychrome) had a cooking jar
filled with pinyon nuts.
Only a few other foods are mentioned in the notes, most of
them unidentified, as in Burial 655 (a child's inhumation, undated)
which included a bowl "filled with food" inverted over the ab-
dominal region. Burial 217 (an infant's inhumation, undated) with
"considerable food in bowl fragment," or Burial 139 (an infant's
inhumation, undated) with a cooking pot filled with "food." For
the cremation of an individual of unknown age and sex with
Matsaki Polychrome (Burial 945) the notes state: "Over the
incinerated bones were several ears of corn on cob and what
appeared to have been three cakes of food, greatly decayed."
With an inhumation (Burial 3, an adult female, with Matsaki
Polychrome) was a bowl "thickly coated on the inside with re-
mains of food."
Sunflower seeds are mentioned with three inhumations which
are dated by the association of Matsaki Polychrome: Burial 221
(an adult male), with a gourd filled with sunflower seeds at the left
shoulder. Burial 220 (a child) with sunflower seeds and "other
food," and Burial 920 (an adult female) with "quantities of cotton
or of sunflower seeds ... at left upper arm and extending under
skull."
Several kinds of wild seeds, possibly collected for food, occurred
in Hawikuh inhumations, but were not identified beyond the com-
ments made by Zuni workmen: Burial 218 (undated, a child) with
"some small glistening black seeds in a mass near top of skull,
evidently placed there at time of burial as there was no sign of
rodent burrow"; Burial 837 (undated, adult male) with kodi-mowe
seeds in a small deposit by the inner side of the right femur;
Burial 916 (undated, an adult male) with small black seeds
("kushutsi," which elsewhere in the notes the Zunis are quoted as
saying were once used as food) ; Burial 1308 (associated with
Kechipawan Polychrome, a child), which had "much decayed
material, probably food, including a bran-like substance (grass-
seed meal, the Zufiis think)"; and Burial 920 (an adult female,
associated with Matsaki Polychrome): "Between side and upper
arm a gourd filled with kitshutsi seeds."
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 23I
One European food is identified in the notes, watermelon seeds,
in the burial of an adult male, among whose grave furnishings was
an iron "war club."
Animal Foods. It is probable that some of the animal bones
found in the graves derive from cooked food placed with the dead ;
however, in most instances identification of species is uncertain or
lacking and the notes do not specify the circumstances under which
the bones were found. Therefore, the following occurrences can
merely suggest the possibility of food offerings, and not prove it.
Inhumations, without chronological association: child, with
bones of a small mammal at pelvis; child, with "several" animal
bones; child, with "several" animal bones; adolescent male, a
secondary burial including animal and bird bones ; adolescent, with
dog and deer bones.
Inhumation, with European artifacts: young adult, sex un-
determined, rabbit ( ? ) skeleton at right forearm.
On August 31, 1917, Hodge transmitted to the U. S. National
Museum a collection of bones from the first season's digging, and
on November 9, 1917, Gerrit S. Miller sent him identifications of
three lots (numbered material, miscellaneous mammals, and mis-
cellaneous birds). It is stated in his letter that "We are retaining
for the museum most of the bird remains and a few of the mammals.
The rest, according to your instructions, have been destroyed."
None of the numbered material is from human graves, although
several burials of dogs and turkeys are represented, and the other
species identified are cottontail, jack-rabbit, white-tailed deer,
mule deer, prairie dog, pocket gopher. The only bird besides turkey
that might have been used for food is grouse, an uncertain identifi-
cation, with the comment, "This may be Dendrogapus but this
cannot be stated definitely at present because of lack of material
for comparison." The miscellaneous mammal bones included, in
addition to species just mentioned, wolf, coyote, badger, bobcat,
porcupine, w^oodrat, white-footed mouse, pronghorn (two horn
cores only), cow or bison ("few odd bones"), and horse.
In 1920 Hodge had an additional collection of bones identified
at the American Museum of Natural History. The species are as
follows (including, for the sake of completeness, some that almost
certainly were not used for food) : Capra (domestic goat) , Bison
bison (buffalo — consisting of six rib specimens, a portion of a
pelvis, and a hyoid), Antilocapra americana (pronghorn antelope),
Odocoileus hemioniis ? (western mule deer), Odocoileus americanus ?
232 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
(western Virginia deer), Ursus horribilis (grizzly bear — one canine
only). Felts (ruff a}) (^^aldcat, lynx), Felis concolorl (puma), Canis
(coyote), Lepiis alleni? (hare), Sylvilagus [atidnbonii?) (brush
rabbit), Chrysemys (mud turtle), and Meleagris gallopavo (turkey).
Metates. Only 19 burials had metates with them, 16 of these
adult females and the other three unrecorded. They are chronologi-
cally distributed as follows:
No datable association 5
Matsaki Polychrome association 8
Ha\^dkuh Polychrome association 5
Associated with European artifacts i
All of these were inhumations, 14 of them with a single metate,
five with two. The position of the metates varied, but most of
those recorded are at the feet or near the legs. Three are recorded
as inverted, three on edge, and for the rest this detail was not
specified. In almost every instance one or more manos were also
present, the largest number being seven; many of the manos were
broken, probably intentionally. Very few^ graves that lacked
metates had manos in them, so it appears that these associated
metates and manos may be ''sets" that had been used together by
a woman during her lifetime and at death were buried \vith her.
Manos. In 35 burials there were manos, in 15 of these associated
with metates. Their chronological assignments are as follows:
Cremations :
No datable associations i
Inhumations
No datable associations 9 (2 with metates)
Heshota Polychrome association .... i
Pinnawa-Kwakina-or-Kechipawan
Polychrome association i
Matsaki Polychrome association .... 11 (8 with metates)
Hawikuh Polychrome association ... 11 (5 with metates)
Association with European artifacts . . i
Location in the grave varied, six instances being recorded of manos
at the feet, and others recorded at left of skuU, at right elbow, at
right hip, on chest, on upper right arm, by legs, near hips, at head,
and "thrown in." Some of the manos were broken, probably in-
tentionally, since both parts were found, which w^ould hardly be
the case if a mano fragment were accidentally included in the fill
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 233
of the grave and had come from the village refuse that most of the
graves were dug into.
Cooking Slabs. In seven graves (all inhumations) there were
whole or broken cooking slabs, the distinctively polished, grease-
and soot-blackened stone slabs on which the Zunis bake the paper-
thin corn bread known as hewe. (Very similar slabs are used by the
Hopi for piki, their paper bread) . At Hawikuh no hewe slabs occur
in graves with pottery earlier than Matsaki Polychrome (two
graves), and four of them are associated with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome (the seventh occurrence lacks datable associations). Five
of the burials are of adult females (two identifications are from
Hodge's field notes, the other three from Hrdlicka's examination),
and two are of adults of undetermined sex. Since ethnographic
data make it clear that a woman's cooking slab was a valued ob-
ject, made with great care, and used for many years, it seems
probable that these cooking slabs in women's burials reflect the feel-
ing that so precious and personal an object was more appropriately
buried with her than used after her death by others. Two of the
slabs were apparently intentionally broken and placed over the
body; one, of circular shape and presumably complete, lay over
the skull; two were at the feet; the position of two was not re-
corded.
Jar Covers. One crem.ation jar, of Matsaki Polychrome, was
covered with a stone disk. A Heshotauthla Polychrome bowl which
contained the inhumation of an infant was covered with an un-
worked fiat stone. One inhumation with a Kechipawan Poly-
chrome jar also contained a stone disk, possible a jar cover, al-
though not in place.
Cooking Paddle. With the inhumation of a child, associated
with Hawikuh Polychrome, were several wooden objects, including
one referred to in the field notes as a "cooking paddle," presumably
an identification supplied by one of Hodge's Zuiii workmen.
Pottery. Since it is impossible to separate vessels used primarily
for wholly utilitarian activities related to food from those used
ritually, it has seemed best to discuss pottery insofar as it occurs
in the graves at this point in the report. Some of the vessels may
have been made and used only ritually, and the placing of pottery
or any other artifacts in the graves is a ritual activity, but the
ceramic grave material cannot be separated on this basis and its
description is not repeated in the section on ritual objects in the
graves.
234 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
The graves of Hawikuh contained a large quantity of pottery,
probably between 1700 and 1800 vessels, at least 1500 of them
decorated. Nevertheless, the field notes are generally incomplete
on both the exact number and kind of vessels in a grave and their
location. The field records do indicate that of the 996 graves,
475 included at least one vessel. Since pottery has been our chief
means of assigning burials an approximate chronological position,
most of the graves without pottery fall into the category "without
chronological associations." For lack of information in the field
notes or lack of identification in our study of specimens in the
Museum of the American Indian, and because some graves con-
tained only plain ware vessels which were not assignable to even
an approximate chronological period, some of the graves with
pottery are also in our "undatable" class. The occurrence of
pottery in graves of all time periods is shown in Table 9.
The manner in which vessels occurred in graves differs greatly
between cremations and inhumations. Although many cremations
were in simple pits in the ground with few or no accompanying
artifacts, a common procedure was to place the burned remains
(ash and small bone fragments) in a jar, or less often a bowl,
generally with an inverted bowl over the top. Only rather rarely
were there other vessels with cremations, although as many as
four or five occasionally are reported in the notes. In 82% of the
cremations there are no vessels other than the container and cover
(or in a few cases, an additional bowl serving as a second cover on
the cremation jar). In the 18% of cremations that have other
vessels there are occasionally "cooking" pots, sometimes additional
decorated vessels, and in several instances very small undecorated
vessels of the sort frequently identified as "toys," although they
may actually have held significant grave offerings of which no
evidence was observable.
With inhumations pottery was a far more variable part of the
grave contents. Some had none, and a few had ten or a dozen
vessels, with 11 decorated vessels and three "cooking" vessels the
highest total recorded in the notes (Burial 915, see field notes
quoted in full above). There was an increase from earlier to later
phases of the occupation in the number of vessels per inhumation
and in the proportion of inhumations with "cooking vessels,"
[see Table 10), which parallels the general tendency observed of
more elaborately furnished graves in the later periods. European
contact reversed this trend, as indicated by a decline in the graves
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS
235
Table 9.
Occurrence of Pottery in Hawikuh Burials
(Note: the term "cooking vessel" is generally used in the field
notes, apparently synonymous with "utility" ware. "Non-cooking
vessels" includes both plain and decorated).
None
Only
Only
Both
Total
non-
''cooking"
'' cooking'
vessels
vessels
Cremations
No chronological
association ]
^73
21
7
4
205
Heshotauthla Polychrome
association
II
II
Pinnawa, Kwakina, or
Kechipawan Polychrome
association
12
I
13
Matsaki Polychrome
association
82
6
88
Inhumations
No chronological
association 2
;90
66
12
9
d>77
B/W or B/R association
2
2
Heshotauthla Polychrome
association
II
4
15
Pinnawa, Kwakina, or
Kechipawan Polychrome
association
I
19
20
Matsaki Polychrome
association
9
115
41
165
Hawikuh Polychrome
association
2
23
II
36
European artifact
association
5
15
3
23
In Church
41
41
Totals
521
377
19
79 996
236 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
containing European artifacts and by those made within the
Church (none of which inchided pottery).
Table 10.
Relative Abundance of Pottery in Inhumations
Average number Percentage of
of vessels per graves containing
grave "cooking
vessels"
Associated with Heshotauthla
Polychrome
Associated with Pinnawa
1.8
17
Glaze-on-white, or Kwakina
or Kechipawan Polychrome
Associated with Matsaki
2.0
17
Polychrome
Associated with Hawikuh
2.4
25
Polychrome
Associated with European
artifacts
4.2
2.3
33
22
In Church
0
0
The position of pottery within the grave was extremely vari-
able, and no difference is detectable from early to late. The notes
are generally brief on the location of the vessels mentioned as
present in a grave, and often omit details entirely. Frequently
mentioned locations are at the feet, beside the left or right hip,
chest, arm, or shoulder, over the pelvis or chest, or on or beside the
head. In the later graves with numerous vessels, the notes some-
times refer to a "deposit" covering part or all of the body, or
extending from the feet to the head. Other graves are described as
having broken vessels "scattered" over the grave. In spite of
insufficient details in the record, it is clear that pottery was placed
at a great variety of positions beside or on the body, vessels
generally standing upright but occasionally stacked or nested, and
when numerous placed in a row extending most of the length of
the grave. Hodge mentions several times his belief that vessels
were "thrown" into the graves as a form of sacrificial destruction;
this impression seems to come from the fact that a large proportion
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 237
of the vessels were broken when excavated. In several graves,
also, Hodge observed that the fill contained rocks, and suggested
that these were thrown in on top of the pottery to complete its
destruction. Although the point cannot be conclusively settled
without adequate observation and recording of the details of such
graves, it seems far more probable that breakage of pottery
occurred from the long-continued pressure of earth and stones
subsequent to the filling of the graves. Such graves as were recorded
photographically generally show pottery broken in place, as by
earth pressure, rather than scattered as would occur if it were
intentionally broken before the grave were filled.
There is little mention in the notes of any evidence of food
residues in the burial vessels, and the purpose for which they were
placed in the graves can not now be satisfactorily determined.
What slight evidence there is, however, suggests that food or
water for the departed was originally contained by a majority of
the vessels. In a few instances, the body of a very small infant lay
in or on a large bowl. A few of the miniature vessels contained
pigment, turquoise, or other non-edible "offerings."
Besides the numerous vessels, a few other pottery objects are
mentioned in the field notes. In the pelvic arch of an adult male
(without chronological associations) was found an "earthenware
penis" {see field notes for Burial 911, quoted in full earlier in this
chapter). The grave of an individual of undetermined age and sex
(without chronological associations) contained a pottery pipe.
Another pottery pipe came from the grave of an adult male,
associated with Matsaki Polychrome. With an adult female burial,
associated with Matsaki Polychrome, was a crude animal figure
of pottery, in a bowl. Worked or shaped potsherds came from two
cremations, both lacking chronological associations, one of an
adolescent and the other of an adult, both of undetermined sex;
each grave included four of the shaped sherds. Three inhumations
without chronological association contained shaped sherds; a
squared sherd on the right forearm of a child; two shaped sherds
with an adult male, one resting on the skull; and two shaped sherds
with a child, one on the lower legs and one on the knees. In the
grave of an adult of undetermined sex, possibly associated with an
iron ax, were one round and two rectangular shaped sherds.
Although the material is not recorded in the notes, a part of
a spindle whorl found on the pelvis of a young adult was probably
pottery; the grave is without chronological associations.
238 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
A unique specimen of ceramic sculpture, found in Room 212
(House Group C), has already been described (see Plate 27, b and
p. 79). Although only the ceramic head and part of the body
survived, it had originally been a complete, life-sized figure, ac-
cording to Hodge's notes; it came from a room 2 J feet deep in
burned corn. From its depth it would seem to have been placed in
this room relatively late in the history of the village, and this is
partially confirmed by its probable association with a jar of Hawi-
kuh Polychrome. No other pottery object of this kind is reported
in Hodge's notes.
Gourd Dippers and Vessels. There were gourds with 19 of the
inhumations (none with cremations), usually referred to in the
field notes as "dippers" but sometimes called "vessels" and some-
times merely mentioned as gourds. Although none is described in
detail, they probably consist of rinds cut in half lengthwise. Eight
came from six burials without diagnostic, datable associations
(two graves each contained two gourds) ; six came from graves
associated with Matsaki Polychrome; six from graves associated
with Hawikuh Polychrome; and one from a grave containing a
glass bead, indicating a post-contact date. The positions recorded
are variable; sometimes a dipper was placed on the chest, or
abdomen, or by the head, or at the right hand. For many the
exact location in the grave is not recorded. In three instances the
dipper was in a basket, and in five instances in or under a bowl.
Three gourds contained seeds — one in an adult male grave with
sunflow^er seeds, one in an adult female grave with squash seeds,
and one in an adult female grave with kushutsi seeds (men-
tioned several times in the field notes but without identification) .
One gourd, with a burial of unknown age and sex, was filled with
corn and covered by an inverted bowl. The age and sex of in-
dividuals in whose graves gourds were found were variable — one
infant, two children, five adults of unknown sex, two adult males,
and five adult females; four of unknown age and sex. It seems
reasonable to guess that these gourds were commonplace utensils
for serving food, and were part of the elaborate food offerings of
Hawikuh graves.
Basketry. Baskets or traces of baskets were found in 52 in-
humations, associated with individuals aged and sexed as indicated
in Table 11.
the burials and associated artifacts 239
Table ii. Occurrence of Basketry
IN Hawikuh Burials
Age & In- Child Adoles- ADULT
sex fant cent ttnkn. male female
nnkn.
No datable
association 4 513
Matsaki Poly-
chrome
association 213 i 61 7
Hawikuh Poly-
chrome
association 4 i 5 4 3
Association with
European
artifacts i
Total 10 I 4 I 17 6 13
In the majority of cases baskets occurred with adults, and twice
as often with females as with males. Absence in the earliest
graves is possibly an accident of poorer preservation, but it is
noteworthy that 44% of the inhumations associated with Hawikuh
Polychrome contained basketry — in spite of the relatively poor
chances of preservation in graves penetrated annually by both
summer and winter precipitation.
A single cremation apparently contained basketry, the notes
reporting traces of small burned sticks that resembled basketry
splints; it was in a jar of Gila Polychrome, and the age and sex of
the individual are unknown.
Almost no clues are offered in the field notes as to the nature
of the basketry, entries usually merely referring to "a basket," or
"traces of basketry." Once (Burial 899) Hodge writes of ''a small
basket-tray of fine weave" and "trays" are mentioned in three
other instances. In two cases, the basketry is a woven ring, such
as has been used in modern times to support a pottery vessel —
"part of headrest for vessels" under the head of Burial S-2 (an
adult), and in Burial 91 (an adult female) "over the position of
the vulva a woven head-ring or pottery rest." In all other instances
it can be presumed that the baskets were shallow, circular con-
tainers. In a "deposit" — presumably a cache rather than a burial,
240 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
since no skeletal material was included — were noted "two flat
baskets, similar to the present-day 'peach baskets' of Zuni," the
only comparison in the notes with modern baskets. Unfortunately
there is no other information on weave or technique.
Baskets were generally placed on the chest (14 instances
recorded) but also at the following locations : at the left shoulder
(4), at the right shoulder (4), at the left elbow (4), at the right
elbow (i), on the face (5), at the left hip (2), at the right hip (i),
at the feet (2), and under the body (3). Poor preservation made it
uncertain in some cases whether traces represented one or several
baskets, but in at least 25 graves it was clear that only one basket
was included. In two graves there were two baskets in each, in
three there were three in each, and in four graves four baskets
each. In these latter instances the baskets were spread over most
of the length of the body.
Although remains of food were found in baskets in only seven
graves, it is probable that this was the main purpose for which
these baskets were used. Three baskets contained corn, one held
corncobs, squash seeds, and some small unidentified seeds, one
held squash seeds, one held pinyon nuts, squash seeds, and red and
green paint, and in one grave the four baskets covering the body
held "food."
In a few graves there were materials for basket making. One
(927 A) included a basket tray containing "layers of bark and a
small bundle of rushes," and in the same grave was "a bunch of
slender twigs that were used in making baskets." One other grave
(871) contained basket materials, "considerable quantity of splints
used in basket-making, laid in bundle fashion." In the notes on
Burial 860, an inhumation of an adult female without chronologi-
cally diagnostic associations, it is stated: "Under skull, part of a
Martinia pod that has been partly painted red." This was probably
basket-making material, since a species of the genus Martynia,
locally known as cat's-claw, has pods frequently used for the dark
elements of basket designs by several modern Arizona Indian
tribes.
Artifacts Related to Household Furnishing
Matting. In 70 of the inhumations there is a record of matting,
used to line the grave or wrap the body wholly or partially. We
assume that these mats are the same as or similar to those used in
Zufii houses on floors and benches. The commonest use of mats in
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 24I
graves appears to have been for lining the bottom or the bottom
and sides of a grave, before the body and offerings were put in.
This is impHed in the notes in 36 instances (17 in association with
Matsaki Polychrome, four with Hawikuh Polychrome, three with
European goods, one with pottery tentatively identified as a variant
of Wingate Black-on-red, belonging to what Hodge would have
called the "pre-Hawikuh" period, and 11 without chronological
placement) .
Occasionally the notes are specific as to the way the matting
was used, as in the following extracts :
"Under skeleton for whole length was a quadruple layer of
checkerweave mat." (Burial 19)
"The entire grave was lined with a mat." (Burial 79)
"The entire body was wrapped in a mat." (Burial 196)
"Over left upper arm and shoulder . . . several layers of mat-
ting and basketry. Indeed the whole body had been laid on mats
w^hich were curled over the sides of the body at the edges of the
grave." (Burial 920)
"The body had been placed on matting which, as was usually
the case, extended a few inches upward at the sides of the grave."
(Burial 900)
"As usual the grave was lined with a mat or matting." (Burial
1257)
Although details are scant in the notes, the sex of the grave's
occupant was recorded for 24 adults (nine males, 15 females).
Matting accompanied 22 other adult burials, and those of four
infants, ten children, and two adolescents.
In nine instances the field notes specify that the body was
wrapped in matting, and in eleven that the matting was over the
body rather than under it. In spite of the paucity of recorded
details, it is clear that for inhumations from the late 1400's
onward matting was in frequent use. Except for one mention
of "checkerweave" (quoted above) the type of matting is not
recorded.
Brushes. Four inhumations contained brushes, referred to as
"a hair and floor brush of straw or coarse grass" (Burial 28) ; "a
floor brush" (Burial 113); "a hair and floor brush" (Burial 230);
and "a pair of crossed brushes" (Burial S2). These were probably
brushes like those still in use among the Pueblo Indians, tied near
one end to provide a short, stiff end for brushing the hair and a
long, flexible end for sweeping. All four burials were of adults, one
16
242 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
a female and the others of undetermined sex. The pair of brushes
was beside the pelvis of a burial ; the other brushes each lay near
the left elbow or forearm. No chronological assignment is possible
for two of these burials; the other tw^o are associated with Hawikuh
Polychrome.
Artifacts Related to Manufacturing
Stone Axes. Only four stone axes came from the burials, and
for none of them is it specified whether the grooving is full or
three-quarters. One came from a cremation that included vessels
of Pinnaw^a Red-on-white. Two are from inhumations with no
datable associations, one placed at the feet of an infant, the other
(re-used as a maul) at the right of the knees of an adolescent
female. One came from an inhumation associated with Matsaki
Polychrome and is recorded as placed near the head and having
part of the wooden handle (but without further details) .
Hammer stones. All of these are probably rough tools, shaped
mostly by use, and of convenient size to fit the hand, which were
used for such tasks as the shaping of other stone tools by the
pecking process. The notes record one of petrified wood and one
of quartzite. Eight specimens were found, one with an undatable
cremation, seven with inhumations spanning most of Hawikuh's
occupation.
Polishing Pebbles. There were polishing pebbles in 14 graves,
all inhumations, generally a single pebble but a pair in four in-
stances. These graves spanned the entire occupation of the site.
Five of the graves were of adult females, one was of an adult male,
and information is lacking for the others. The pebbles were on the
person's chest in four graves, in others at the hips, at the left side,
at the right shoulder, or unrecorded. These pebbles were probably
used in smoothing and polishing pottery during the final stages of
its manufacture. One pebble, however, was with several crystals
and other objects in a skin bag which is interpreted in the field notes
as the equipment of a medicine man (see verbatim description of
Burial 816, p. 212).
Paint Grinding Stones. Only three paint grinding stones came
from Hawikuh graves, two from inhumations with Matsaki Poly-
chrome association, one from an inhumation with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome association. One specimen is recorded as having green
paint on it, lying below the femora, in the grave of an adult female.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 243
Stone Abraders. Of the four graves from which unspeciaHzed
abrading or rubbing stones came (a single one in each), one was a
cremation without datable associations and the others were in-
humations, one with Matsaki Polychrome association and two
with Hawikuh Polychrome association.
Grooved, abrasive tools, used not only in shaping or smoothing
arrowshafts but in other woodworking also, were found in four
graves, as follows:
Cremations
No datable association i (pair)
Inhumations
No datable association 2 (i pair, i single)
Matsaki Polychrome association i (pair)
Iron Tools. Several inhumations, dating from after the first
contact with the Spanish, contained rusty remains of iron objects,
including a few tools. An iron knife was found beside the left hip
of a child; another, with a riveted wooden handle, lay near the
pelvis of an adult of undetermined sex. An iron awl point with
cord wrapping came from the grave of an adult male. In or near
the grave of an adult (sex undetermined) was an iron ax ; according
to the notes its association with the burial is uncertain. Two
graves contained iron nails, possibly salvaged from the mission
structures and used as tools : with an infant was a nail head, and
with an individual of undetermined age and sex was an iron nail
in a fragment of burned wood. A child's grave contained a piece
of rusting iron that is not further identified in the field notes.
Un fired Clay. Three graves contained masses of unfired clay
that may have been raw material for the making of pottery, placed
with the body of a potter; it is also possible that they were for
holding perishable objects such as feathers upright, or some other
unguessed purpose. In one instance. Burial 870, of an adult male,
the unbaked clay was an irregular ball at the left hip. In another,
it was contained in a fragmentary jar (with an individual of un-
determined age and sex). A cremation, in a Matsaki Polychrome
jar (age and sex of individual undetermined), was accompanied
by "a ball of unburned clay."
Bone Tools. In 1920 Hodge published Hawikuh Bonework. He
states in his foreword that : "The accompanying paper presents the
results of observations on a class of artifacts found in abundance
at the ruins of Hawikuh, New Mexico, during the field seasons of
16*
244 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
1917 to 1919, inclusive, and although the excavations at that site
are not yet finished, it is scarcely probable that many new forms
of bone objects will be found" (p. 67). He observes that "although
some [bone implements] were found deposited with the dead and
others were recovered from the houses, by far the greater number
of the thousands unearthed were from the refuse heaps beyond
the dwellings, where they had been cast with the village debris"
(p. 71). Following a short description of methods of cutting and
shaping bone, he describes and copiously illustrates the following
classes of objects (including antler as well as bone objects): awls,
spatulate awls and spatulas, weaving tools, punches and allied
tools, chisels, knives, rubbers and polishers, needles, pins, arrows,
tubes, flutes, whistles, bird-calls, beads, scoop-like objects, hooks,
handles, notched bones, painted bones, gaming bones, effigies,
spindle- whorls, ornaments (including rings, pendants, and antler
"head-dresses"), and miscellaneous objects. Hodge does not include
totals of the numbers of artifacts found, but over 600 specimens
are illustrated, suggesting that his "thousands" may not be too
great exaggeration. In contrast, bone objects are recorded from
only 85 burials, most of these single items. Many of these are from
burials that had no chronologically diagnostic accompaniments,
and frequently there is no record of the nature or position of the
artifacts. Whatever meaningful details could be gleaned from the
field notes are reported here (in listing awls, needles, etc., where
age or sex of an individual is not stated it is unknown).
Bone Awls. Cremation with Heshotauthla Polychrome: burned
awl with bones. Cremations with Matsaki Polychrome: one burned
awl in each of two graves (one a young adult) .
Inhumations not placed chronologically: one awl in each of
13 graves: (infant, on chest; child, at left shoulder; child, at left
shoulder; adolescent, above pelvis; adult male, in front of face;
adult male, near feet (this awl, with the butt carved to represent
a mountain sheep, is illustrated in Hawikuh Bonework, Fig. 20) ;
adult male, near hips ; adults, near head, at back of skull, at feet,
and "in debris."
Inhumations with Heshotauthla Polychrome: infant, position
of awl not recorded; adult, at hips.
Inhumation with Kechipawan Polychrome: adult, on chest.
Inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome: child, at right shoulder;
child, at legs; adolescent, position of awl not recorded; adult male,
"awl or punch, with a band of red paint at the blunt end," at
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 245
hips; adult male, four spatulate awls, points upward, below pelvis
at left; adult female, in bowl on knees; adult female, at left of
chin ; adult female, one near pelvis, one in bowl near right side of
head; old adult, at feet; adults, one near middle of body, one at
left of head, three at left of head; in a small, one-room house "a
few hundred feet" east of Hawikuh, an individual buried face
down, three awls near feet, one at head.
Inhumations with Hawikuh Polychrome: adult female, on
chest; adult, at feet; adult, two awls at left shoulder; individual
with position of awl not recorded.
Inhumations associated with European artifacts: infant, and
adult, position of awl with each not recorded.
In Hawikuh Bonework Hodge distinguishes several kinds of
awls : those in which the butt is an unmodified articular portion of
a mammal or bird bone, those with butt as well as tip extensively
modified, and awls "consisting of fortuitous splinters." The field
notes are not explicit enough to permit separation of the awls
with burials into such groups, but it is probable that all three kinds
are represented. Except for the two mentioned (one with butt
carved into a sheep head and one with red paint) none had deco-
ration of any kind. No awl handles, such as Hodge described in
Hawikuh Bonework (pp. 87-89), are mentioned in the notes. Only
another class of awl reported by Hodge, the awl-spatula (pp. 97-
102) is represented in the burials by only a single specimen, listed
above.
Bone ''Chisels." In Hawikuh Bonework (pp. 1 10-12) a kind of
bone tool is described and termed "chisels" although the material
makes rubbing, scraping, or smoothing a more probable function.
One such object is recorded from the burials, found with a crema-
tion in a Matsaki Polychrome jar; the bones were identified in the
field as those of an adult, of undetermined sex.
Bone ''Gouge." With the inhumation of a child, associated
with Matsaki Polychrome, was a bone object reported in the
notes as a "gouge." It may resemble the "scoop-like objects"
described in Hawikuh Bonework (pp. 134-35) but its function
is unknown.
Bone Needles. With Burial 193 (see details quoted previously),
an adult female, were two bone needles in a small jar at the left
of the skull, one of them stuck into "a small ball of cotton or
yarn." This burial had pottery of several types with it, the latest
being Hawikuh Polychrome.
246 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Bone "Knives." Objects referred to as "knives" are reported
from five burials. It is improbable that they had either the
strength or the sharpness to have actually been used as knives, and
the uncertainty as to their function is reflected in the field notes,
where one is called "a bone knife or scraper" and another is
called "a bone knife or punch." The burial occurrences at Hawikuh
are as follows :
Inhumation without chronologically diagnostic associations:
adult, two "knives" found with burial "in debris."
Inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome: adult male; on chest.
Inhumation with Hawikuh Polychrome: adult; by lower left
leg, made of deer rib.
Inhumations associated with European material: adult male,
on ankles ; individual of unrecorded age and sex, at left of head.
Bone Weaving Tools. This group of implements is discussed by
Hodge as follows : " . . . the ordinary awls and the weaving tools . . .
are so thoroughly identical that they may be distinguished only
by the work grooves of the latter, caused by pressing down the
weft of fabrics in process of manufacture ; indeed there is no reason
to suppose that they were not used as much in sewing as in
weaving. These weaving bones were almost as numerous as the
awls at Hawikuh ... So worn indeed are some of these implements
that the hollow interior is exposed . . . , indicating the long use to
which they had been subjected. Many of the specimens, it will be
seen, show several grooves caused by wear. This long and constant
use is further indicated by the fact that hundreds of weaving
bones from which the points had been broken after having been
worn almost through, as well as points themselves, were found in
the refuse-heaps of the village" (Hawikuh Bonework, pp. 103-104).
Only four of these tools were found with burials.
Inhumations without chronologically diagnostic pottery : child,
with broken weaving tool under legs ; adolescent male, with broken
weaving tool.
Inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome: child, weaving tool at
right of head.
Inhumation with Hawikuh Polychrome : adult female, weaving
tool over skull.
Wooden Weaving Tools. Objects identified as weaving equip-
ment are mentioned in the notes for several graves, and although
there are few details, the information is of such interest that it will
be quoted here.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 247
Burial 32 (inhumation of an individual of undetermined age
and sex, with no chronological association) included "a wooden
batten for weaving, notched, 8 inches from left hip." Beneath
it was "a quantity of corn cobs and cedar fronds."
Burial 79 (inhumation of adult, sex undetermined, associated
with Matsaki Polychrome): "A blanket attached to loom, the
sticks and batten of which were still preserved, had been laid
under the body."
Burial 113 (inhumation of adult male, with no chronological
association) : three objects identified as battens {see field notes
quoted in full earlier in this chapter).
Burial 193 (inhumation of adult female, associated with Hawi-
kuh Polychrome): although no weaving tools were found, it
should be mentioned that the grave included a small ball of
cotton or woolen yarn (see field notes quoted in full earlier in
this chapter).
Burial 927 [A] (inhumation of adult female, associated with
Matsaki Polychrome) : a long flat stick is identified as possibly a
batten {see field notes quoted in full earlier in this chapter) .
Burial 1278 (inhumation of adult, sex undetermined, without
chronological associations): ''Over the bones, slanting downward
from the feet westward [the body was flexed on left side, with head
to west], were several long sticks, rounded, as though parts of a
loom frame."
Antler Tools. In Hawikuh Bonework antler tools of the following
kinds are described: arrowpoints, chisels, handles, punches, and
rubbers or polishers. In the graves the only tools reported are two
"bodkins," and five punches. They occur as follows:
Cremation in a Sikyatki (?) Polychrome jar covered with a
bowl: adult (sex undetermined), a punch, burned, in jar with
bones and with turquoise and shell beads.
Inhumation without chronologically diagnostic accompani-
ments : individual of undetermined age and sex, a punch at right
of pelvis.
Inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome: adult female, two
"bodkins" in a bowl beside the skull {see field notes for Burial
927 [A] quoted above; a function as basket-making tools is sug-
gested for these "bodkins" by the presence of twigs, grass, and
bark in the grave) .
Inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome : individual of undeter-
mined age and sex, with an antler "awl or punch." Since antler is
248 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
not a suitable material for slender, strong pointed tools this is
probably not actually an "awl" at all.
Inhumations with European materials: child, with punch at
left shoulder; child with unidentifiable decayed tool at left side;
adult female with punch between left arm and side.
In addition to these few tools, pieces of cut antler of uncertain
use were found in four graves : an undated cremation of an adole-
scent, a cremation with Matsaki Polychrome of an individual of
undetermined age and sex; the inhumation of an adult male
associated with Matsaki Polychrome; and the inhumation of an
adult of undetermined sex associated with Hawikuh Polychrome.
Spindle Whorl. With the burial of a young adult (Burial 854),
unaccompanied by any other artifacts, was "part of a spindle
whorl" lying above the pelvis. Its material and shape were not
recorded.
Artifacts Related to Dress and Adornment
Textile Garments. In spite of all the possibilities for destruction
and disappearance, remains of fabrics were recognized in a few
cremations and in a large number of inhumations. These ranged
from extensive remains in a few graves to slight traces in most
instances. The field notes are regrettably incomplete on details
of most of these occurrences, with almost nothing recorded of
weaving techniques. We assume that the material is cotton except
in two instances where wool is specified. The details which
follow, compiled from the field notes, afford a few glimpses into
Zufli costume and burial practices in the 15th, i6th, and 17th
centuries.
Only six cremations had evidence of textiles, burned fragments
in one cremation that lacked a datable pottery association, and
unburned fragments in the others. With an infant (associated with
Gila Polychrome) was string-hke fiber; with a young adult (in
a Gila Polychrome jar) was a "small wad of unburned fabric." A
cremation (age and sex unknown) with Kwakina Polychrome had
pieces of cord; and two cremations with Matsaki Polychrome (a
child and an adult) had bits of textile with them. In these five
graves the fabrics must have been placed with the already cremated
remains at the time of burial. In all but the one instance recorded
any clothing or wrappings with the body when it was cremated
have left no trace.
56
(15%)
I
(50%)
3
(20%)
50
(31%)
17
(47%)
6
(21%)
I
(2%)
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 249
Textile material is reported from 134 inhumations, or 20% of
all those excavated. Their temporal-cultural distribution is as
follows :
No datable associations
Black-on-white association
Heshotauthla Polychrome association
Matsaki Polychrome association
Hawikuh Polychrome association
Associated with European materials
In the Church
The high proportion in graves containing Hawikuh Polychrome
may not reflect an actual increase in the amount of textile material
placed with burials, but rather the better preservation of more
recent grave goods.
Age and sex association did not appear to differ significantly
through time, but textile materials were much more frequent in
adult graves. They occurred in 2oyo of infants' graves, 14% of
children's graves, 10% of adolescents' graves, 35% of adult males'
graves, and 40% of adult females' graves.
The observations in the field notes can be grouped into a few
categories for convenience: references to "fully clothed" remains,
those that are referred to as "wrapped," mention of fragments or
traces in specific locations, mention of fragments or traces without
location or other details, and identification of items of clothing.
Although 16 burials were recorded as "clothed" or "fully
clothed," no additional details are available to indicate the nature
of the garments referred to. These burials included six with Mat-
saki Polychrome (two infants, a child, and three adults of undeter-
mined sex), three with Hawikuh Polychrome (two adult females,
one adult of undetermined sex), one with European material
associated (an adult male) , and six lacking chronological placement
(one infant, three children, one adult male, one adult of undeter-
mined sex) .
Twenty-two burials were recorded as "wrapped," occasionally
with such details as "thickly covered with cloth from neck to feet,
as if wrapped in a blanket" (Burial 885, an infant without chronolo-
gically significant associations), or "many times wrapped in cloth"
(Burial 91 B), an infant, probably stillborn, found between the legs
of an adult female without chronologically significant associations),
or "wrapped in many folds of woven fabric, among which were
250 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
some twisted strings" (Burial 886, a child associated with Matsaki
Polychrome). These 22 burials can be classified as follows: six
with Matsaki Polychrome (two infants, two children, one adult
male, one adult of undetermined sex), three with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome (one child, one adult of undetermined sex, one of undeter-
mined age and sex), two with European materials associated (an
adult of undetermined sex, wrapped in a wool blanket, one of un-
determined age and sex), and 11 without chronological placement
(three infants, one child, four adult males, one adult female, one
adult of undetermined sex, one of undetermined age and sex).
The textile fragments for which some information on location
in the grave was recorded occur in a great variety of positions.
Most common are the presence of cloth under all or most of the
body (17 occurrences), or under the head or the head and shoulders
(eight occurrences). The less frequent presence of cloth remains
over most or all of the body (13 occurrences) may be due to less
favorable conditions of preservation. It is not possible to determine
whether some or all of these individuals were originally "wrapped"
or "fully clothed." It seems wisest to summarize the field data
without risking reconstructions which lack a firm factual basis.
Accidents of preservation may also account for most of the special
locations at which traces of cloth were found: under the feet, over
and under the chest, along right upper arm, along left arm, at neck,
and in the pelvic area (this last might, of course, be unidentifiable
traces of kilts, belts, or skirts). Burial 900 (a child, with Matsaki
Polychrome) is described as having the head wrapped in woven
cotton. Burial 595 (an infant, without datable associations) was
not only "fully clothed in woven material" but also had "a wad
of many folds placed under the head."
There is even less information available for the 23 burials
having only "traces" or "fragments" of cloth with them. They are
important chiefly in showing how abundantly textiles were used
in the Hawikuh burials.
Since nearly any details on prehistoric or contact period Zufii
textiles are of potential importance, we quote details from several
burials in which identifiable objects occurred.
Associated wtth Matsaki Polychrome :
Burial 216 : "Fabric of twisted strings on left arm and shoulder,
much decayed" (adult male).
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 25 1
Burial 5: "Skeleton had remains of a fabric kilt from waist to
below knees .... About the waist was later found a cord belt (E)
for the kilt, a part of which (F) was saved" (adult of undetermined
sex).
Burial 927 A: "Between the lower ribs and the backbone, on
the right side was a layer of what may have been feather-cloth.
With this piece were a number of turkey and bluebird feathers and
fragments of sticks to which they were probably fastened" (adult
female) .
Burial 596: The details quoted earlier in this chapter include
woven cloth, a grass-like woven girdle, and a woven band "of the
same material" about the hips, and a "pillow of strings" under the
head (adult, sex undetermined).
Burial 949: "Over the pelvis were strands of cord" (infant).
Burial 866: "From waist down to knees, remains of woven
cloth and strings which may have been fringe" (child) — most
probably a kilt.
Associated with Hawikuh Polychrome :
Burial 211 A: "Behind head at left was a circular mass of
woven material" (adult female).
Burial 904: "The body had been fully clothed and a quantity
of fringe-like material was found at the pelvis" (adult female).
Burial 193 : The details quoted earlier in this chapter include
small rolls of fabric over left cheek, a yellow or white garment
from neck to ankles, a twisted black rope from left breast down to
and around waist, a similar rope across right breast and down to
waist, a kilt of coarser weave than the dress, seven inches wide
over pelvis with a hank of yarn extending from its lower edge
between the legs half way to the knees, binding of string around
upper part of each leg and also just above knee, and from knees
to ankles under the long dress a fabric similar to the kilt (adult
female) .
Associated with European materials :
Burial 951: "A wad of woolen strings was at right of neck"
(chHd).
Burial 199: "At the right wrist were traces of fabric upon
which were sewn rows of the black barrel-shaped beads, possibly
a wrist protector With the black beads on wrist were also
252 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
some small animal bones, perforated for attachment and some
badly decayed shell beads" (adult male).
Burial 26: "Over chest of skeleton a tassel of woolen strings
fastened at the top" (adult male).
In the Church:
Burial 4 A: "On the skull were fragments of what evidently
was commercial cloth of fine texture, and part of what appears to
have been a hair-net or lacework" (infant).
Without Chronological Associations :
Burial 184: "The back hair in a coil, with part of woven head-
band" (adult male).
Skin Garments. Because of the difficulty of interpreting poorly
preserved traces found in a few graves, our information on skin
clothing is unavoidably meager. One occurrence is an inhumation
lacking chronological placement (Burial 709, adult female), with
"what appeared to be skin clothing, under head and pelvis." Two
inhumations with Matsaki Polychrome had traces of what may
have been skin garments: Burial 141 (adult female) with "what
appeared to have been a dressed skin" under the skeleton; Burial
596 (adult, undetermined sex) had "what appeared to be tanned
skin" about the hips, as well as woven cloth and a girdle of grass-
like material. One inhumation (Burial S2, adult, sex undeter-
mined) with European material (a wool blanket) was recorded with
"upper part of body apparently clad at burial in deerskin shirt."
Five other burials had traces of deerskin or animal hide of some
sort too fragmentary to allow any determination of their original
form, whether clothing, containers, or other.
Bark Loin-Cloth. The grave of an adult female, associated with
Hawikuh Polychrome, included a "woman's loin-cloth of bark"
between the legs, perhaps a cedar-bast menstrual pad [see field
notes of Burial 230, quoted earlier in this chapter).
Wooden Combs. Mosaic-decorated wooden combs were found
with six inhumations; some details of them are provided in the
discussion of turquoise, and five of them are illustrated in Hodge,
192 1. Two were in graves lacking chronological associations, three
were with Matsaki Polychrome, and one with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome. At least three, and possibly all of the burials are female.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 253
Hodge believed that all of the combs had originally been "worn
upright in the hair-knot at the back of the head" (Hodge, 1921,
p. 21). The combs ranged from 2| inches to 5f inches long, and
each consisted of a rectangular panel bearing mosaic decoration,
from which the teeth extended. The teeth were from six to twelve
in number, and accounted for about three-fourths of the length
of the comb.
In addition, two slender, plain combs were found. One of these
(Hodge, 1921, Fig. 3) is 4f inches long, has three teeth, and is
decorated with a raised ridge across the rectangular upper part of
the comb ; it had a bezoar with it when found, perhaps originally
attached to the top. It was found in the grave of an adult female,
in association with Matsaki Polychrome. The other comb, un-
decorated, was in Burial 927, that of an adult female (see field notes
quoted in full earlier in this chapter) ; it was found in the hair at
the left side of the skull.
Hair Dressing. In a few inhumations the hair was sufficiently
preserved to permit observations on the way it had been worn by
the individual at the time of burial. As in other aspects of the
field notes, details are less full than would be wished, but even the
information given is of significance.
Burial 184: adult male (age given as 40 by Hrdlicka), without
chronological association; ''the back hair in a coil, with part of a
woven head-band.
Burial 91 [A] : adult female, associated with Matsaki Poly-
chrome; ''At the left side of the skull and adhering to it, a plain
comb of wood, with a head similar to that of the inlaid comb
previously found .... Under the left side of the head a small mass
of yarn-like cord, probably the hair-tie."
Burial 234 : adult female, associated with Matsaki Polychrome ;
"at back of head three of the bezoars that often accompany burials
and are found at the head, and three more under the left side of
skull . . . ; touching one of the hair ornaments [bezoars] at the
back of the head, a mosaic hair comb, badly decayed . . . ; under
left side of head remains probably of a hair-tie, consisting of a
small mass of strings . . . Adjacent to the comb a small painted
[pointed?] stick."
Burial 838 : adult of undetermined sex, associated with Matsaki
Polychrome. "There was a small quantity of hair adhering to the
left [lower] side of the skull, and coarse strings at each side of the
head that possibly had served for tying the hair."
254 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Burial 230; adult female, associated with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome. At the back of the head and at the chin were two bezoars,
probably worn in the hair, and at the back of the head some
string-like material that may have been a hair-tie (see field notes
quoted in full earlier in this chapter).
Hair Brushes. See the description of the combined hair and
floor brushes, under Artifacts Relating to Household Furnishings.
Iron Belt Buckles (?) In two of the Hawikuh graves there were
iron objects which may have been parts of belt buckles, although
the field notes are not positive in their details. One of these an
"iron hook" was at the waist of an adult male; the other, a
perforated piece of iron, was at the waist of a child.
Face Painting. Burial 102, the inhumation of an adult female,
without chronological associations, included turquoise mosaic dec-
orated ear pendants and a comb, a "bag" of green and blue paint,
and interesting indications of face-painting: "The skull bears
evidence of face-painting in black under left eye, across nose and
upper and lower lips. The Indians asked permission to re-bury the
skull, as, on account of the black paint, it was very 'precious,'
being the skull of a priest. The skull was therefore given to them
for the purpose and it was reburied." It is not clear from the notes
whether the face had been painted at death or the skull later
painted.
Burial 196, the inhumation of adult male, without chronological
associations, included a cloth bag of paint, several wooden objects
including a bow and a club and possibly a miniature bow. "The
long bow and the charm objects [the bag and the miniature bow ?]
were covered with sacred glittering black paint, and on the skull
black paint of the same sort adhered to the face as though the
whole face had been painted."
Shell Beads. SheU was the material most commonly used at
Hawikuh for small personal adornments, particularly beads and
pendants. Shell beads were reported from 55 burials, as detailed
in Table 12. The frequency of association with individuals of
various ages is approximately the same as the frequency of these
ages in the entire series of Hawikuh burials, but there is a marked
tendency for shell beads to occur more often with adult males
than adult females. The field notes do not record the shape of
beads in most cases, but occasionally disk beads are mentioned,
and in a few places the Zuni terms ko-ha-kwa and tsii-i-li are used,
but it is not clear whether these names distinguish shapes of beads
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 255
or kinds of shell used. It is possible that Hodge misunderstood the
use of these terms by his Zuni workmen and that they were not
for mutually exclusive categories; Newman (1958) lists "k/oja-qa/"
as valuable object, white corn, and white shell necklace and "z/u"
as spiral shell.
Beads occurred in cremations both singly (six recorded oc-
currences) and in groups (sometimes recorded as "a few," "sev-
eral," or "a number"; also specified as 3, 3, 3, 8, 19, and about
250 — ^in the last instance recorded as olivella beads, burnt) .
For inhumations there is a similar variation, from single beads
(under the head of an adult w^oman, between the knees of an adult.
Table 12. Occurrence of Shell Beads in Hawikuh Burials
Child A dole- Adult Adult Adult Age 8c Total
or scent [sex male female sex
infant un- un-
known) known
Cremations
No datable
association 131 7 12
Kwakina-
Kechipawan
Polychrome
association i i
Matsaki
Polychrome
association 14 27
Inhumations
No datable
association 9 241 16
B/W-B/R
association i i
Matsaki
Polychrome
association 8 2 3 i i 15
European
artifact
association 213
Totals 21 4 10 8 2 10 55
256 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
and in a pouch on the chest of an individual of unknown age and
sex) to such instances as the following:
a few disk beads at neck (adult)
22 small bivalve beads, burnt, at neck (child)
12 beads around right wrist (adult male)
beads at neck (infant)
necklace of shell beads (adult male)
necklace of white shell beads (infant)
several at left of head, others at neck (child)
a few, scattered (child)
necklace (infant)
olivellas in two rows on right arm, as if strung (adult male)
olivella and disk beads at neck (child)
a string, twisted, at right wrist (adult)
necklace of shell and one turquoise (child)
Insofar as the field notes permit generalizations, shell beads
seem to have been worn as neck or wrist ornaments, sometimes
one or a few beads on a string and sometimes a complete necklace.
Shell Pendants. Shell pendants occur in fewer graves, and are
relatively most frequent with infants and children {see Table 13).
It is noteworthy that none occur in the graves of adult females.
With rare exceptions, the kind of shell and the shape of
pendants is not recorded in the field notes ; a few are specified as
olivella, a few as bivalves, and a few as clamshell. The only shapes
mentioned are "a small shell pendant possibly representing a frog"
(Burial 1293) and one each of triangular, crescentic, cross, circular,
and bracelet-like shape. One specimen, set with turquoise and jet
mosaic, is illustrated in Hodge's 1921 report (PL 1, d), a, fragment
of a large bivalve, found lying on the chest of a young adult
(Burial 802) with a Kwakina Polychrome bowl under the knees.
This was the only such specimen found at Hawikuh. The manner
in which shell pendants were worn is indicated in the following
recorded details :
pendant and beads at neck (child)
I at right ear, i at throat (infant)
I of clamshell at left hand, i of clamshell under pelvis (adult
male)
14 around neck (child)
I (irridescent) at left wrist, i univalve and i bivalve at right
side of head (adult male)
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS
several, under chin (child)
1 on right arm (adult)
3 at neck, with beads (child)
2 at right of neck, 2 under skull (child)
5 on chest (child)
I, circular, at throat (child)
257
Table 13. Occurrence of Shell Pendants in Hawikuh Burials
Child Adole- Adidt Adtdt Adidt Age & Total
or scent (sex male female sex
infant un- un-
known) known
Cremations
No datable
association 3 47
Kwakina-
Kechipawan
Polychrome
association i i
Matsaki
Polychrome
association 3 14
Inhumations
No datable
association 5 i 2 8
Kwakinaor
Kechipawan
Polychrome
association i i 2
Matsaki
Polychrome
association 311 5
Hawikuh
Polychrome
association 3 i 4
European
artifact
association 3 3
Totals
21
o 5 34
17
258 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Other Shell Ornaments. There were few other ornaments of shell
besides beads and pendants. Two inhumations (both lacking
datable associations) had bracelets, one on the right wrist of a
child and one of uncertain identification at the neck of a child
(possibly a fragment of a bracelet, used as a pendant). One conical
shell tinkler was recorded, at the head of a child, an inhumation
with no datable associations; apparently others were found but
not mentioned in the notes, as this is described as "shell tinkler
of the usual conical variety."
Unworked shell came from three cremations, all of them
lacking datable associations; a burned univalve and other small
shells with the bones of a child, a burned bivalve with the bones
of an adult, and two fragments of a large unburned univalve with
the bones of a young adult.
Ten inhumations contained unworked shell. No chronological
association : a bivalve near the vertebrae of an adult ; a univalve
with an adult male. Associated with Kechipawan Polychrome: a
mussel shell under the right hip of a child; two olivellas with a
child (a grave that also contained two shell pendants) . Associated
with Matsaki Polychrome: one olivella with an adult female; a
small burned shell near the left knee of an adult of undetermined
sex. Associated with Hawikuh Polychrome: a shell fragment under
the head of an adult of undetermined sex; a bivalve "attached" to
a woven kilt at the waist of an adult of undetermined sex. Associ-
ated with European artifacts : three shells at the waist of a child ;
a snail shell at the neck of a child, with two turquoise pendants.
Bone Beads. In six cremations and 17 inhumations, as follows:
Cremation with Heshotauthla Polychrome: child, with burnt
beads placed on remains.
Cremations with Matsaki Polychrome : adolescent, two unburnt
beads; adult, five to six burned beads.
Inhumations not placed chronologically: old male, necklace
of tubular beads at neck; adult, necklace at feet; adult, single
tubular bead at knees ; burial with bead near knees.
Inhumations with Heshotauthla Polychrome : infant, and adult,
one bead with each.
Inhumation with Kechipawan Polychrome: adult, one bead.
Inhumations with Matsaki Polychrome: infant, one bead:
adolescent, one bead; adult male, bead under body; adult female
one bead; adult female, two beads near lower legs; adult, bracelet
of 18 beads on left wrist.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 259
Inhumation with Hawikuh Polychrome: adult female, two
beads in basket at hips.
Inhumations associated with European artifacts: child, neck-
lace of bone, shell, seed, and glass beads; adult, with unspecified
number of beads.
No details of these beads occur in the field notes, but it can be
assumed that they are all short, tubular sections of bone, such as
are described and illustrated in Hawikuh Bonework (pp. 133-134,
Pis. XXXVII, xxxviii), with varying degrees of smoothness in
the cut ends.
Bone Pins. With the inhumation of an adult male, without
chronologically diagnostic pottery, the field notes record, "At left
hand four large bone pins of the usual kind." None occurred with
any other burials, but in Hawihih Bonework (p. 118) Hodge wrote,
"Pins were common in the Hawikuh refuse, hundreds having been
found. They are exceedingly limited in variety, since they were
fashioned almost exclusively from the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones of the jackrabbit by merely rubbing one of the articular
ends to a blunt point." [See Hodge, 1921, Fig. 21, a-c.)
Stone Tinklers. These small elongated pieces of stone, often of
petrified wood or other very dense material, were probably at-
tached to parts of the costume in rows or clusters so that they
would tinkle with each movement of the wearer. Their place has
been taken more recently, of course, by spherical metal bells.
Four inhumations, all without datable associations, contained
stone tinklers, in one grave by the head, in one on the chest, in
one in the mouth of an adult female (Burial 922), and in one an
unspecified number — "about the left elbow were a collection of
pieces of silicified wood (a) which the Zunis say were once at-
tached, after boring, to the kilt to make a tinkling sound when
dancing" (Burial 6). The notes for Burial 922 also add the Zufii
name amilili for this object.
Stone Pendants. Eight graves contained stone pendants, but none
is described in any detail, although one is said to be triangular, and
materials include white stone and jet. Their occurrence is as follows :
Cremations
No datable associations 2
Matsaki Polychrome associations 2
Inhumations
No datable associations i
Matsaki Polychrome associations 3
17
26o THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
In the absence of information as to their positions in the graves
it is uncertain if they were worn at the neck, at the ears, or in
some other fashion.
Turquoise. Although Hodge described and illustrated many of
the turquoise specimens in his Tiirquois Work of Hawikuh, New
Mexico, published in 1921, a summary is needed here, since he was
unable at that time to assign the specimens to more than an
approximate chronological position, and because specimens from
ten burials are recorded in the notes but not mentioned in his
publication. Hodge illustrates the kinds of turquoise work found —
disk beads, pendants, mosaic on shell and wood — and discusses
the historical observations by the Spanish on the occurrence of
turquoise at Hawikuh and elsewhere. This information is not
repeated here.
Six inhumations had mosaic-decorated wooden combs in them,
two without datable associations, three associated with Matsaki
Polychrome, and one with Hawikuh Polychrome. All are adult
burials, three of them recorded as female. Several of the combs
were found at the back of the skull and all are believed to have
been worn in the hair at the back of the head. The best preserved
of these combs (one of a pair with Burial 102) is 5-| inches long
and about i| inches wide, a fiat tablet of wood with all but the
upper i| inch carved into 12 slender teeth. The upper part is
covered with about eight rows of small pieces of turquoise, more
or less rectangular, and three larger pieces of jet or slate; the back
has a single row of turquoise across the top. Other combs were
similar but less complete, some with the back plain, and some with
a band of black stones on the front. In all but Burial 102 there was
a single comb in the grave. Of the seven specimens found, five are
illustrated in color in Hodge's Titrquois Work.
Similar mosaic decoration occurred on small rectangular wood-
en pendants about i by i| inch, of which a pair was found in each
of two burials — Burial 102, without datable associations; Burial
920, associated with Matsaki Polychrome. In both cases, they were
found at each side of the skull and had doubtless been worn
suspended from the ears. Burial 102 was an adult of unknown sex
and Burial 920 was recorded as an adult female. {See Turquois
Work,Fl l,ej.)
A small wooden tablet, not perforated for suspension, but
similar in size and decoration to the mosaic ear pendants, was
found lying on the chest of a child (Burial C40) buried under the
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 261
floor of the Church, one of the few Christan burials with grave
accompaniments. This ornament was more crudely decorated than
the mosaics but had turquoise set on both the back and front (see
Hodge's Turquois Work, PI. II, c, c').
Burial ig8, an adult female, had not only a mosaic-decorated
comb, but a fragmentary mosaic "similar to the ear-pendants ..."
adhering to the under side of one of the ribs, at the right, as if it
had been attached to a belt (Hodge, 192 1, p. 26). The original
form and function of this turquoise mosaic remains uncertain, due
to its poor preservation.
One other example of mosaic decoration was found, frag-
mentary but originally larger and more elaborate than any of the
combs or ear pendants. On fragments of a large bivalve, turquoise
and jet mosaic was found still in place [see Hodge, 1921, PL I, d,
and II, d), part of it alternate rows of turquoise and jet, and part
of it a row of triangular jet pieces interlocking with a row of
triangular turquoise pieces. Hodge says that sifting produced only
a few more pieces of mosaic and no more of the shell, so that it
must have been broken previously ("destroyed for sacrificial rea-
sons") and put into the grave incomplete. This is one of only two
examples of turquoise from Hawikuh associated with pottery
earlier than Matsaki Polychrome; this grave (Burial 802) had a
Kwakina Polychrome bowl under the knees; another unique ob-
ject, a bird carved of jet, was at the waist.
Beads were the most numerous turquoise objects at Hawikuh,
and were found in two cremations (one of them not datable and
the other in a Matsaki Polychrome jar with a number of shell
beads) and in 14 inhumations (of these four were undatable, six
were associated with Matsaki Polychrome, and four were associated
with European artifacts). These beads were usually discoidal [see
Turquois Work, Figure i) with a diameter of tV to | inch, thick-
ness from less than -gV to nearly -J- inch.' Some holes were "so
small as to receive only the point of an ordinary pin." Four adults
(three male, one unknown) had a short "string" of small beads at
one ear (three at the left, one at the right), the largest number in
a "string" being 52. It is uncertain from the notes if any of these
were actually in place on a piece of string, or only so grouped that
it was inferred that they had been strung. Burial 655 (a child,
without datable associations) had 19 turquoise beads and a number
of seed beads under the chin, where they had probably formed a
necklace. Burial 185 (a young adult, associated with Matsaki Poly-
262 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
chrome) had a number of disk beads at the neck. Three other
probable necklaces had only one or two turquoise beads with a
larger number of shell or seed beads, or a single turquoise pendant
with beads of other materials. Burial 84 (adult, sex unknown,
associated with Matsaki Polychrome) had 31 disk beads lying on
the pelvis in the remains of a cloth bag. Several graves had one or
two beads in positions that left it uncertain how they had been
used, and in one grave there were two irregularly-shaped beads
l^dng near the left hand, perhaps from a string around the wrist.
Burials 931 and 928 (a young adult and an adult male, respectively,
and both from the historic period) each had 14 beads at one wrist —
the right wrist of the young adult, with two glass beads in addition ;
and the left wrist of the adult, with one glass bead. Hodge indicated
in his field notes that these individuals were probably buried at
the same time, since they lay at the same depth.
Turquoise pendants, including oval, more or less rectangular,
and irregular, were found in only four graves (one unburned, in
a cremation with datable association; one under the right ear of
a child, in an undatable grave; two at the neck of a child, along
with beads of shell, seed, bone, and glass ; and one on the chest of
an adult male in a grave with European artifacts associated).
Other pendants that Hodge illustrates (192 1, Fig. i) probably are
surface finds or pieces used in mosaic (perforated pieces of tur-
quoise were sometimes used along with the pieces specially pre-
pared for mosaic work) .
Finally, small pieces of turquoise came from some graves
containing mosaics, and also from five others, including several
burned pieces with a cremation in a Matsaki Polychrome jar,
pieces in "medicine kits" of two burials (with Matsaki and Hawi-
kuh Polychrome associations, respectively), and a small piece of
green turquoise on the chest of a child in a grave of the historic
period.
In summary, turquoise at Hawikuh is notable for the fine
mosaic work in which it was combined with lesser amounts of jet
or other black stone mounted on wood or shell. Otherwise, the
beads and pendants are not numerous, large, or conspicuously
fine. Although Hodge emphasizes the association of mosaic-dec-
orated hair ornaments and ear pendants with females, the evidence
for this is weak, and turquoise seems to be associated with both
sexes equally, and with all ages except infants. These distribution
data are summarized in Table 14.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS
263
Table 14.
Occurrence of
Turquoise in Graves by Age and
Sex
Chronological
A
Male
D U L T
Female Sex
Adolescent
or Young
Child
Age and
Sex
Association
Un-
known
Adult
Un-
known
None
I
5
2
I
Kwakina-
Kechipawan
Polychrome
Matsaki
I
I
Pol3^chrome
Hawikuh
I
3
4
I
I
I
Polychrome
European
artifact
2
I
I
I
I
3
I
It should be mentioned that although only one of the 41 burials
in the Church had turquoise associated with it, six of the 22 other
burials of the historic period contained turquoise, a far higher
proportion than for the earlier periods. The rarity of turquoise in
cremations (only four occurrences) may, of course, be the result of
complete destruction of pieces burned with the body and other
accompaniments .
Bezoars. In the alimentary tracts of some ruminants occur
concretions called bezoars. These are composed of hair cemented
with organic or calcareous material. Bezoars were found in 15
Hawdkuh inhumations (none in cremations), ranging from single
specimens to six in Burial 234 (an adult female, associated with
Matsaki Polychrome). Hodge, in Tiirquois Work of Hawikuh, New
Mexico, comments as follows :
We may mention here the interesting circumstance of the
finding, in connection with . . . ornamented combs [of wood
and turquoise] at Hawikuh, of at least onebezoar {a kesine),
placed at the top of the comb, as if forming a part of it;
indeed, when first exposed, it was thought to be a rounded
extension of the wooden part of the comb itself. In all these
instances the bezoars consist of indurated masses of hair, and
they were recognized by the older Zuiii men as being derived
from the stomachs of deer, but the reason for their association
264 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
with combs was not understood by them. Bezoars were found
also at other parts of the skeletons, in two cases near the
pelvis; but these were exceptional, and in a number of cases
they were observed at the back of the head without the
presence of combs, as if used alone as hair ornaments ... At
the back of the skull [of Burial 234] there were three bezoars,
and three others lay under the left side. Touching one of them
at the occiput was the mosaic hair-comb shown in plate I b.
There were other instances in which two or three bezoars
projected upward from the skull like horns. A bezoar found
in association with the mosaic comb from Burial 102 . . .
[adult, sex unrecorded, undated] is show^n in the accompa-
nying figure 2 (p. 20).
The field notes fail to mention a bezoar with Burial 102, but
Hodge's remarkable memory, legendary among his friends and
colleagues, can undoubtedly be relied on for such details. Hodge
also wrote briefly on bezoars in Masterkey in 1936, stating, "Some-
times attached to the top of plainer hair combs . . . was a bezoar,
a concretion found in the stomach of certain ruminants, but in
the cases in w^hich these occurred in Hawikuh the bezoars were
indurated flattened balls of hair that had been taken from the
stomachs of deer. In no case was the bezoar of stony consistency."
Hodge then mentions that apparently, "the Pima learned from
the Spaniards of the reputed efficacy of bezoars as a preventive
of hydrophobia," although his Zuiii informants said they had no
knowledge of this. Since none of the bezoars in Hawikuh graves
have ceramic associations earlier than Matsaki Polychrome, which
was probably in use from the late 1400's to the middle of the
i6oo's it is possible, though unprovable, that all of these burials
are within the historic period and the bezoars reflect the temporary
adoption of this European belief by the Zufiis. More probable
would be their explanation as one of the many oddities from the
natural world (concretions, crystals, petrified wood, etc.) collected
and valued by the Zufiis.
The field notes report bezoars in seven burials w^hich lack
datable ceramic associations and eight burials with Matsaki Poly-
chrome associations. Three of these were adult males, nine adult
females, and three adults of unknown sex. In nine instances
bezoars were at the head (a pair at each ear, a pair at the neck,
six at the back of the head and under the left side of the skull.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 265
and six single occurrences), twice with males, four times with
females, three times with adults of unknown sex. Two burials had
a single bezoar near the right hip, and in one burial it was near
the left hip. Three burials had bezoars in the chest area or under
the back. Except for the bezoars which Hodge describes as asso-
ciated with wooden comb in Burials 102 and 234, none is associated
with specific objects such as containers or pieces of clothing, al-
though it is possible that they were worn in some fashion rather
than merely placed in the grave separately.
Glass Beads. Seven graves contained necklaces or wrist orna-
ments which included one or more glass beads of European origin.
Although it is possible that these were acquired by the Zuiiis at
the time of the visits of Cabeza de Vaca (1536), Estevan (1539), or
Coronado (1540), it is far more likely that they date from the
decades of missionary contact in the i6oo's. Hodge's field notes
record four graves of children in each of which was a necklace
made up of beads of several materials, including glass. For two
it is specified that there was a single glass bead, with beads of shell
and seeds in one instance and of stone and shell in the other. The
other two included an unspecified number of glass beads, along
with others of shell, bone, and seeds. Another child's grave con-
tained a single glass bead at the neck. An adult male had an
ornament on his left wrist made up of one glass and 14 turquoise
beads, probably in a single strand. And at the right wrist of a
young adult of undetermined sex was an ornament comprising
two glass and 14 turquoise beads.
Porcelain ( ? ) Pendant. With the inhumation of a child was a
pendant presumably made of a piece of European or oriental
porcelain, described as follows: "At right side of neck, as if they
had been worn as ear-ornaments at the right ear, two shell
pendants, also a pendant made of a piece of china."
Copper Ornaments ( ? ) . It is impossible to determine from the
field notes whether the few pieces of copper found were of pre-
Columbian Mexican or of European origin. The inhumation of a
child, not associated with any chronologically diagnostic material,
contained a copper object near the left side of the head, which is
recorded as a "tinkler" such as was worn on dance costmnes.
There is no clue in the field notes to the original form or purpose
of "a small bit of sheet copper" found in the grave of an adult of
undetermined sex, in which the latest pottery was Hawikuh Poly-
chrome ; it is mentioned here to keep the record as complete as
266 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
possible, and because the most probable function is as an orna-
ment. One of the burials in the Church, that of an adult of un-
determined sex, had two copper or brass pins lying on the chest.
Artifacts Related to Ritual Activities
Feathers. In spite of the probability of their decaying beyond
recognition, feathers were found in four graves, all inhumations.
Burial 911, without chronologically diagnostic accompani-
ments, adult male: "Inside of left elbow what the Indians called
kwisuiu-hlana [the handwriting here is difficult to make out], a
medicine used for sheep, made of feathers fastened together at the
end with a tiponi."
Burial 916, also not placed chronologically, adult of undeter-
mined sex: "On right chest were two small pieces of bark and a
bluebird feather."
Burial 94, associated with Hawikuh Polychrome, adolescent,
"prayer plumes on chest."
Burial 836, associated with an iron tool, individual of undeter-
mined age and sex: "Between the chin and the shoulder was the
wing of a small bluebird (tlaiahiko), still retaining its color."
With Burial 915 A were remains of what were identified as
medicines, with parts of a "shrine." In the explanation provided
by a Zufii (included in the field notes quoted earlier in this chapter)
the feathers of four birds, used in this shrine, are mentioned, but
apparently no traces of them were actually found — their former
presence is merely assumed by the informant.
Bird Skeletons. Although the reason for the presence of bird
bones in some of the graves can only be conjectured, they are
reported here because of the possibility that they had ritual
significance. The following instances are recorded in the field notes :
Inhumations, without chronological associations: child, with
skeleton of small bird at right elbow; adult female, with skeleton
of small bird between left arm and side; adult of undetermined
sex, with bird bones at left hip; individual of undetermined age
and sex, with bird bones on abdomen.
Inhumation, associated with Matsaki Polychrome: adult of
undetermined sex; five eagle claws included with "the parapher-
nalia of a medicine-man, and "At the right hand a small pot-sherd
under which were bones of a very small bird." (See field notes for
Burial 865, quoted in full earlier in this chapter.)
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 267
Inhumation, associated with European artifacts: child, with
part of eagle beak on head.
Plant Medicines. Among the many perishable materials sur-
viving more or less intact in the Hawikuh graves were portions of
several plants which the Zufii workmen identified as medicines.
Although identifications by botanists are unavailable, the comments
in the field notes are sufficiently interesting to deserve presenta-
tion here.
Burial 880, cremation with Matsaki Polychrome, of an adult
(sex undetermined): "On top of the bones were three pieces of
medicine known as mohakwa akwawe, a red plant. The skin of
this plant, wrapped with cotton, is used by the Zufiis at the
present time as a sheep medicine, mohakwa = 'rain.'"
Burial 1005, inhumation without chronologically significant
pottery, adult (sex undetermined) ; "Along left side some medicine
known as kwimiu hlitptsina, and over left side, extending from
chest to below right hip, a quantity of kwimiu hlana, a 'sheep
medicine."'
Burial 6, inhumation without chronologically significant pot-
tery, individual of undetermined age and sex, but identified by the
Zunis as a "Priest of the Bow." At the left side were "what
appeared to be a bunch of root stems which the old man says were
medicine." (The notes on this burial are quoted in full at the
start of this chapter.)
Burial 927 [A], inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome, of adult
female. Under a cooking vessel by the right knee "was a layer of
wood fiber similar to stramonium stalks. Resting on and extending
the length of the left femur was a layer of stramonium stalks."
This probably refers to Jimson weed, a species of Datura. (The
notes on this unusually elaborate burial are quoted in full earlier
in this chapter.)
Burial 915 [A], inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome, of adult
female. In the grave were stalks and roots of Datura metaloides,
yucca fruit, and an unidentified root, all said to have been me-
dicinal. (The field notes, including comments on the significance
of these plant materials, have been quoted in full earlier in this
chapter.)
Burial 591, inhumation with Matsaki Polychrome, of adult
(sex undetermined). "On the right shin were some decayed twigs
or roots which Pedro, a medicine man, identified as yatlipo-kyai,
used for headaches."
268 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Pigments. There were pigments of one kind or another in 57 of
the Hawikuh graves, as follows:
Cremations
No datable associated pottery i
Matsaki Polychrome associated i
Inhumations
No datable associated pottery 16
Black-on-wliite pottery associated i
Kechipawan Polychrome associated i
Matsaki Polychrome associated 28
Hawikuh Polychrome associated 6
European objects associated 3
Occasionally two or three pigments are reported from a single
grave, but usually the fragments, even when numerous, seem to
have been all the same. Green is most frequently recorded (33
times), followed by blue (S^apparently a distinctly different
pigment and not merely an alternative term for green), white (7),
red (6), yellow (4) and black (4 — two of these occurrences are
described as "glittering black"). Pigments occurred with burials of
all ages and both sexes in the following frequencies: infant (5),
child (13), adolescent (3), adult male (13), adult female (5), adult of
unrecorded sex (13), individuals of undetermined age and sex (5).
Hodge appears to have been particularly interested in the
occurrence of pigments in the graves, to judge by the relatively
full details that were recorded in the notes. For this reason we can
provide the following minutiae :
Cremations, without datable association. One grave, that of a
child, with a lump of white "paint," burned.
Cremations, associated with Matsaki Polychrome. One grave,
of individual of undetermined age and sex, dark red pigment con-
tained in a sherd.
Inhumations, without datable associations. {See Table 15.)
Inhumations associated with black-on-white pottery. One
grave, of an infant with black-on-white jar of unidentified type,
with a large lump of green pigment one foot to north of skeleton, and
green powder sprinkled over skeleton and on matting under body.
Inhumations, associated with Kechipawan Polychrome. One
grave, of adult (sex not determined). White pigment, with quartz
crystals, turquoise, and a polished stone, probably all originally in
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS
269
Table 15
Pigments with Inhumations which Lack Datable
Associations
(Color abbreviations: G, green', K, black', R,red', U, blue] W, white:
Y,
yellow.)
§
s
0
1
^
§
^
^
1^
-^
^
«
g
•+<i
00
g
'^
•^
1
1
3
-5S
1
^
►Sjo
^
-^
^
^
^
In pottery cup at feet
GU
In bag at pelvis
GU
In bag, also "glittering black"
GU
on face and bow
K
In woven bag
G
In bag at right hip, also at
KWGR
right knee
KW
Two pieces of worked hema-
tite, possibly in a bag, un-
der right hand with con-
cretions
R
Five pieces, in line out from
left ear
G
At right ear
G
In mouth
G
On chest
G
On chest
G
Small pieces scattered among
bones, large piece on chest
G
Two large pieces at upper leg
U
Stain on knees & 6 inches up
femora (a female)
R
Under body
"...a piece of the usual
white paint" — position
not recorded
W
270
THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
5S
^
§
s
§
^
§
^
i
H
^
00
-*<i
C/5
g
^
■^
§
'^
^
■^^i
^
^
^
?s
f
^
^
g
^
'^
s,
^-s
0
^
^
^
^
^
At left elbow, also "glisten-
G
ing black" on chest & left
K
hand
At right hip
G
Above pelvis
U
At left knee
W
Traces at feet & hips
G
Beneath knees, 7 impressions
in the earth in 2 rows.
each about the size of a
robin's egg, filled with
paint, & large chunks at
pelvis
W
Scattered both sides of body,
GU
and near left foot
Y
A few grains
G
Throughout 4 adjoining graves
G
Stains on bones
G
Stains on bones
G
Bits throughout grave
G
a skin bag (see field notes quoted in full earlier in this chapter,
Burial 816).
Inhumations, associated with Matsaki Polychrome. (See
Table 16.)
Inhumations, associated with Hawikuh Polychrome. (See
Table 17.)
Inhumations, associated with European Artifacts. Pigments
occurred in the graves of three children: both green and blue on
the chest of one ; green at the left knee of one ; and with the third,
yellow pigment in a small pottery cup of plain gray, and green
pigment on the chest.
the burials and associated artifacts
Table i6. Pigments with Inhumations Associated
WITH Matsaki Polychrome
271
(Color abbreviations: G, green, K, black; R, red\ U, blue; W, white]
y, yellow;
?, unknown.)
^
0
1
1
g
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
0
In bowl over knees
In pouch on chest
In pouch at left hip
In woven bag over left side
of pelvis
"Paint stone" in bag or bun-
dle (see field notes quoted
earlier, Burial 915)
Under skull
Under skull
2 pieces in front of face
On upper chest
Near left wrist
On upper chest, and also
"small grains" of brilliant
blue in bottom of small jar
At right elbow
Near right wrist
At left wrist & right elbow
&hand
Under bowl
Cylinder of white stone
(kaolin?) at left of head
Painted Hne under right legs,
toes to knee
Small pieces, scattered
Small pieces, scattered
Pieces in grave
Y
G
G
G
G
G
G
?
G
G
U
W
Y
R
G
R
G
G
G
?
GR
272
THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
In regard to pigments in general, virtually no comments are
recorded from the Zufii workmen as to possible uses or significance,
although on several other topics their views are sometimes entered
in the notes. It can only be assumed that these pigments were, for
the most part, used in ways that relate to ritual activities.
Table 17
Pigments with Inhumations Associated
WITH Hawikuh Polychrome
{Color abbreviations: G, green; R
red;
w,
white
;Y,
yellow.)
^
'
0
§
"^
'^
1^
^
§
§
•^■i,
^
^
1
H
^
C/3
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Under bowl
GR
Cylinder of white stone
(kaolin?) at left of head
w
Painted line under right leg,
toes to knee
G
Small pieces, scattered
G
Small pieces, scattered
G
Pieces in grave
Y
Prayer sticks. Eighteen burials had with them objects that are
identified in the notes as "prayersticks," or occasionally "prayer
plumes" or "plume sticks," presumably all consisting of short
lengths of wood or cane with painted decoration, string wrapping,
attached feathers, or a combination of these. What few details are
available are included in the listing which follows.
Cremation, no chronological assignment: grave of an indi-
vidual of undetermined age and sex included "charred reeds that
may have been prayer sticks."
Inhumations, no chronological assignments: adult male with
"some" prayer-sticks; adult male with three prayersticks or cane
cigarettes at right elbow; adult of undetermined sex, with a blue
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 273
prayerstick at feet; individual of undetermined age and sex, with
three prayersticks on chest, one with string through it and with
cord wrapping.
Inhumations, associated with Matsaki Polychrome: child, of
undetermined sex, with two small sticks that appear to have been
wrapped with corn husk ; adolescent of undetermined sex, with a
piece of a prayerstick, painted blue; adult female, "over and across
the breast some reed prayer-sticks (?), also two wooden ditto";
adult male, with "plume sticks" on pelvis; individual of undeter-
mined age and sex, with a prayerstick fragment painted blue.
Inhumations associated with Hawikuh Polychrome : adolescent
of undetermined sex, with prayer plumes on chest; adult female
(age 55, by Hrdlicka), "foot above the upper legs, in the sand, was
a blue prayer-stick"; adult female, "at the left arm were some
prayer-sticklike sticks, uncolored"; adult female, unusually long
prayersticks, at right side, "partly painted and showing signs of
wrapping"; adult of undetermined sex, prayersticks at left hip;
adult of undetermined sex, prayer plumes at pelvis ; individual of
undetermined age and sex, prayersticks on the lower vertebrae —
"they evidently had been placed on the lower abdomen and show
signs of the string binding." (These may be the objects appearing
in the lower part of PI. 30, h, since Hodge refers specifically to this
negative in his notes.)
Reed Cigarettes. In connection with prayersticks, two occur-
rences were included which may have been reed cigarettes, rather
than prayersticks. Doubtless the fragmentary condition of the
specimens made a positive identification impossible. In three other
instances reed cigarettes are listed among the grave contents, as
follows.
Inhumation without chronological data: adult of undeter-
mined sex, "across abdomen a mass of vegetal material that had
been carefully placed, also a sacred cigarette of reed with wrapping
at middle and another on the face or neck."
Inhumation associated with Hawikuh Polychrome : child, with
a blue painted, wrapped cane cigarette.
Inhumation associated with European artifacts : individual of
undetermined age and sex, "a reed tube which the Indians claim
was a cigarette."
Portions of Shrines. In Grave 915 (for which the field notes
have been quoted in full earlier in this chapter) two squared sticks
were found lying across the pelvis, identified as uprights for a
18
274 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
shrine. Below them was a board, also possibly part of the shrine.
On the chest was a green-painted, oval piece of wood, and some
other, badly decayed sticks, also of probable ritual significance.
The extensive and varied contents of this grave make it probable
that the identification of some of them as a wooden shrine or
altar is correct.
With Burial 916 (an adult of undetermined sex, unaccompanied
by datable objects) was an object the identification of which Hodge
doubted, in contrast to his general reliance on Zuni identifications.
"At the feet was a mold [sic] of clay (?) which the Zufiis say was
an etowe used on altars, but which more probably was only a
loaf of potter's clay."
With Burial 215 (a cremation associated with Matsaki Poly-
chrome) there was "a feather-holder for use at an altar." Its
material, probably either clay or stone, is not recorded.
Crucifix. Only one crucifix was found with the burials in the
Church. Grave 37, that of an adult of undetermined sex, had a
wooden cross held in the right hand, lying on the right side of the
chest, with the cross's upper end under the individual's chin.
Qiiartz Crystals. In ten of the Hawikuh graves there were
recorded quartz crystals, some by themselves and some associated
with other objects of presumed ritual significance. Details are as
follows :
Cremations, without chronologically significant associations : a
"small" crystal with an individual of undetermined age and sex;
a "large clear" crystal lying on the east side of a cremation with
its point north, and inside the cremation jar a "smaller purphsh"
crystal, with individual of undetermined age and sex.
Inhumations, without chronologically significant associations:
an artificially pointed crystal, also two concretions and two arrow-
points, all originally in a bag at the waist of an individual of un-
determined age and sex ; two crystals under the skull of an adole-
scent female ; a crystal at the back of the head of an adult of un-
determined sex.
Inhumation, with Kechipawan Polychrome: three crystals in
a bag at the left side, with white pigment, \\dth an adult of undeter-
mined sex.
Inhumations, with Matsaki Polychrome: a crystal above the
pelvis of an adult of undetermined sex ; a crystal on the chest of a
child; a crystal lying along the south side of a jar at the right thigh
of an adult female, with a fossil bivalve and a concretion.
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 275
Inhumation, with Hawikuh Polychrome: a crystal with an
individual of undetermined age and sex.
Concretions. Nine of the Hawikuh inhumations contained con-
cretions, usually small dark red to black globules that weather
out of sandstones in the Zuni region. They occurred as follows.
Inhumations, without chronologically diagnostic associations:
four "translucent milky concretions" possibly stalactites or gyp-
sum rather than concretions, at neck of adult of undetermined
sex; concretions under right hand of adult male, with two pieces
of hematite, possibly originally in a bag; at left side of pelvis of
individual of undetermined age and sex; two concretions in bag
at waist, with a crystal and two arrow^points, with individual of
undetermined age and sex; two "small" concretions on right fore-
arm of adult male.
Inhumation, with Kechipawan Polychrome: several concre-
tions in bowl on chest of adult of undetermined sex.
Inhumations, with Matsaki Polychrome: beside a jar at the
right thigh of adult female, with a quartz crystal and a fossil
bivalve; five concretions with an eagle claw, two chipped points,
some turquoise, and red pigment, at the right elbow of an adult of
undetermined sex ; a calcerous concretion on the chest of an adult
male, said by the Zufiis to be a "heart."
Copper Objects. In the grave of a child w^ere found two copper
beUs lying at the distal end of a wooden baton along the right
side of the body; the notes do not indicate whether they are of
Mexican or of European manufacture. A copper pendant or medal
was found on the chest of another child.
Pottery. Although the occurrence of pottery in graves has been
summarized in the section on "Food and Artifacts Related to
Food Preparation," there is no doubt that a considerable but
undetermined number of the vessels found with burials were placed
there for what can loosely be called ritual purposes. Traces of food
were observed in some, and food was probably once present in
many more. Much of the pottery is elaborately decorated, in con-
trast to the plain gray to brown vessels with rougher surfaces that
were apparently the every-day cooking ware. Much of the dec-
orated pottery is in good condition, not soot-caked or greatly
worn, although some pieces appear to have been subjected to long,
fairly hard use. Since in most instances, we lack any basis for
assessing the precise function or the probable multiple functions
of pottery placed in the Hawikuh graves, it must suffice to say
18*
276 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
that at least some of it, probably much of it, had a ritual role. A
long detour into Zufii ethnology might shed further light on the
problem, but would be out of place in a report that is meant
primarily to present Hodge's data rather than our own inter-
pretations.
Antler Headdress. One of the more tantalizing pieces of costume
found in the Hawikuh graves was termed by Hodge a "head-
dress— for want of a better name." He describes it as follows:
"... made of six, rounded, circular pieces of antler (?), which
was found, greatly decayed, over the skull of an adult [Burial 100,
sex not determined]. The position of the pieces was such as to
indicate that they had formed the hemispherical framework of a
head-dress, as there were remains of vegetal material in association,
and there are still traces of fiber wrapping around the ends of the
segments" (Hawikuh Bonework, p. 148). The grave also contained
two manos used for grinding blue paint and a small undecorated
cup of Jeddito Yellow Ware containing green and blue paint.
Antlers in Graves. The inhumations of two adults (sex undeter-
mined), both associated with Matsaki Polychrome, contained
numerous large pieces of antler, some complete, placed over the
bodies. For one of these, Burial 978, the field notes have already
been quoted in full; the statement, "over the feet, and from right
of knees to skull, various deer antlers," is supplemented by a
photograph [see PI. 30,^). The notes record for the second of these,
Burial 991, that, "Over the trunk were antlers of deer." Again,
a photograph [see PI. 30,0) provides additional details. Hodge states
that these two graves were "recognized by some of the Zufii as
those of 'deer chiefs'" (Hawikuh Bonework, p. 148).
Painted Bone. With the inhumation of an adult female, associated
with Hawikuh Polychrome, was an object described as follows in
the field notes: "With the skull was a bone (said by the Indians to
be wolf) painted red. Koyuka said it is a Zufii custom to paint a
bone of the first animal of its kind killed by a hunter."
Pipes. Although two graves (both inhumations with Matsaki
Polychrome in association) contained pipes, neither is adequately
described in the records. For Burial 3 there is noted "below chest
on right side a small straight stone pipe"; this was an adult, sex
unknown. Burial 79, also adult, sex unknown, had a "stone pipe
at left wrist."
Musical Instruments. Burial 5, the inhumation of an adult of
undetermined sex, with Matsaki Polychrome associated, has the
THE BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS 277
following statement in the field notes: "In left hand were a few
remains of a wooden or reed flute." No details are given.
With Burial 953, the reburial of the bones of an adult male,
was found "half of a bone flute." No chronologically significant
artifacts were associated.
With Burial 837, an adult male lacking datable associated
material, was a "bone whistle" in the right hand.
The flute and whistle just mentioned may be similar to speci-
mens described in Hawikuh Bonework (pp. 126-133). The flutes,
made of turkey ulnae, have one to five lateral holes. A whistle is
shown with a notch near one end and a single lateral hole ; others
are short tubes with a single centrally placed lateral hole, and are
said to be used as bird-calls.
In the notes on Burial 6 (quoted in full at the start of this
chapter) there is a reference to "a collection of 3 bows and 2 flutes,
massed together" lying across the right arm. Unfortunately no
details are recorded.
Skin Containers. Five inhumations had with them traces of
what appear to have been skin bags or pouches. Preservation was
too poor to permit any record of dimensions or details of con-
struction. Burial 816 (an adult of undetermined sex; field notes
quoted in full earlier in this chapter) , associated with Kechipawan
Polychrome, was identified as the remains of a "medicine man,"
and included fragments of what seemed to be a skin bag containing
quartz crystals, a pebble, some turquoise, and white paint. Two
burials associated with Matsaki Polychrome had similar objects
with them: a "pouch" on the chest of an individual of undeter-
mined age and sex, containing a bead and some green paint ; and
a skin "wrapping" for some unidentified substance with the skele-
ton of an adult female. With two adult male burials that lacked
chronological placement there were containers of skin, one con-
taining green, black, red, and white paint and resting on the chest ;
the other, containing several olivella shell beads and a "whitish"
material that may have been cornmeal, at the right hand.
Woven Bags. Although they are listed in the field notes without
details of size or workmanship, five woven bags are worth brief
mention. Three of them contained pigments and the others prob-
ably served originally to keep other small, valuable objects. Two
were with inhumations wdth Matsaki Polychrome: with an adult
of undetermined sex were "the possible remains of pouch with
braided fringe" on the pelvis; with an adult female "on the left
278 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
pelvis were remains of a woven bag containing green paint." With
the inhumation of an adult female, associated with Hawikuh Poly-
chrome (Burial 193, for which the field notes have been quoted
earlier in this chapter), the "remnants of a woven bag" at the left
side. Two were inhumations without chronological placement: an
adult male had "at right knee traces of a fabric bag containing
large lumps of green and blue paint"; a child had, near the right
leg, "a fragment of a woven bag that had contained green paint."
It is probable that in several other instances small masses of paint
found in graves had formerly been in w^oven bags, or alternatively
in the sort of leather bags or pouches of which traces were found ;
however, in these instances no trace of a container is reported.
CHAPTER VI
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS IN THE HAWIKUH
CEMETERY
by
Frederick W. Hodge
[Editors Note: This manuscript was among Hodge's Hawikuh
papers, in a rough, hand-written version and in the typed, revised
form presented here. In a few Hues of the first draft, omitted in the
revision, Hodge states that "the work of the last two field seasons
was devoted largely to a study of the structural features of the
dwellings, to which subject most of the investigation of the coming
season of 1921 will also be given." The manuscript was, therefore,
written in the winter of 1920-21, and would, as Hodge foresaw,
have needed little change on the basis of the subsequent field
work. A comparison of the field notes with sections of this manu-
script shows that the descriptions given here are mostly para-
phrases of the notes, with only a few added comments and gen-
eralizations.]
During the excavations in the cemetery of Hawikuh by the
Hendricks-Hodge expedition, especially during the years 1917 to
1919, there was found, in addition to hundreds of graves and the
incinerated remains of many dead contained in earthenware ves-
sels or in small pits, certain sacrificial deposits, some of which
were composed of objects and materials that bore such close
similarity to the accompaniments of the graves that they were not
distinguishable from them, excepting that no human bones were
in association. It is with reference to these deposits that we turn
for the moment from the main subject of the archeology of Hawi-
kuh, since the work in the cemetery may be regarded as practically
finished.
We will consider the most numerous form of deposits — those
possessing the characteristics of true burial accompaniments, es-
pecially as they included food remains. It may be remarked that
the skeletal material of Hawikuh, on the whole, was in good state
279
28o THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
of preservation, hence it was not due to disappearance through
decay that no bones were found in connection with the deposits,
which, nevertheless, bore every other appearance of having been
of a mortuary character. The reason for these sacrifices, for such
they seem to have been, is not accounted for, but a clue to their
origin may be afforded by a custom, formerly observed by the
Zuiii of the farming village of Ojo Caliente (Kyapkwainakwin),
lying about four miles southwest of Hawikuh, of visiting the ruins
at night and burying small quantities of food for their departed
ancestors, a practise which may have been in vogue when the
pueblo was inhabited. The deposits of which we will treat, how-
ever, were in no sense of such recent origin, for they were made
during the occupancy of the village, prior to 1670, and there is
every reason for believing that the custom was of ancient origin,
as will be seen. Possibly in some cases the deposits were made in
behalf of those who had died away from home, or of those who had
been borne into captivity by predatory enemies, for it is known
that Hawikuh was raided by the Apache more than once within
the historic period.
A fair idea of the character of the mortuary deposits may be
obtained from a description of those which come within that class.
As it is sometimes difficult to segregate these from certain others,
closely related, we will exclude as mortuary, for the sake of more
or less strict classification, those deposits which did not have the
usual complement of foodstuff in association with artifacts or
with certain ceremonial objects. Some of the deposits excluded
from the mortuary class might quite properly be included therein,
especially those which consisted of single broken vessels or of
masses of sherds of several vessels, but without traceable food
remains, since human burials with no evidence that food had been
placed with them, were occasionally encountered.
Except where otherwise noted, the pits in which the deposits
were made, regardless of their class, were of sufficient size only
to receive their usually limited contents, thus eliminating from
consideration the possibility that the bones had been removed from
certain graves some time after interment, leaving only the burial
accompaniments.
MORTUARY DEPOSITS
Excavation had barely been commenced in 1917, when we en-
countered, in the western section of the cemetery, a deposit con-
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 281
sisting of a decorated bowl, fragments of baskets, a head-rest of
v/oven Yucca, and a quantity of food remains. Within the bowl
were squash-seeds, small mammal bones, and remains of other but
unidentifiable food. The bowl had been placed in a basket tray
that also had much food consisting of corn, squash, and pifion-
nuts; and adjacant to it was a similar food basket, sufficiently well
preserved to prove its identity in style with the typical Osier
baskets made at Zuhi today. Beneath the objects mentioned,
juniper bark had been laid, as in so many of the graves. Indeed,
the entire deposit in every respect was characteristic of the ac-
companiments of a comparatively recent Hawikuh burial of a
woman, if we may judge by the presence of the head-ring, strictly
a woman's article.
22. Two and a half feet beneath the surface, in the same part
of the cemetery, was a large decorated bowl, in fragments, resting
partly over the sherds of a decorated jar. Beneath one of the
pieces of the jar were the well-protected remains of food, in-
cluding corn-cobs. This deposit had been placed on a woven mat
of Yucca leaves, which, like the bark mentioned in connection with
the other deposit, was often used to cover the bottom of graves.
126. A deposit of corn (represented, as in the other cases by
cobs), together with a chipped celt with probably a piece of its
wooden handle, and in the middle of these what appears to have
been an incised arm-band made of the inner bark of a tree, evi-
dently the Cottonwood.
144. A mass of broken pottery, with basket fragments and
with corn-cobs and squash-seeds.
149. A deposit of earthenware vessels, one of them unfired,
with the usual corn and squash-seeds.
539. Three feet below a non-mortuary ( ? ) deposit (539) was a
jumble of broken vessels — bowls, a water-jar, a cooking-pot, traces
of basketry and of basket splints, and a ydmune, a stone (?)
object attached to the dance-robe in certain ceremonies. These
were on a layer of food remains, especially corn on the cobs, which
in turn had been placed on woven matting and in bark and
splinters of wood, such as might have been taken from the refuse
of a pile of firewood.
547. A deposit which, like the last, had every appearance of
being mortuary, but having no remains in association, was found
3 feet down and covering an area of 5| feet by 16 inches, extending
east-west. It was composed of three vessels smashed to pieces,
282 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
lying with a basket, right-side up; the remains of a gourd, prob-
ably a dipper, a small bundle of medicine twigs or roots, and an
inverted unbroken metate and mano lying side by side atop the
broken vessels. Scattered throughout the ''grave" were small
pieces of green paint. Judging from the metate and the mano, this
deposit was made for a woman; and w^e may conjecture also that,
from the fact the metate was inverted, its owner was dead when
the objects were buried in the grave-like pit.
555. Eighteen inches down w^ere what appeared to be the mor-
tuary deposit of another woman — a basket, a weaving batten,
a quantity of corn cobs, squash-seeds, and cotton seeds (?).
556. A large deposit without human remains, its average depth
2| feet, extended north-south for 7I feet, the sherds of some of
the vessels being onty a few inches beneath the surface. Possibly
this deposit really consisted of as many as three, made at different
times, but the sherds were so mixed that this was not deter-
minable. The bottom of the three sections of the pit, which were
actually continuous, contained matting, traces of basketry, sticks
that had been smoothed as if for prayerstick-making, a couple of
weaving battens, quantities of food remains (corn, squash, and
watermelon seed), a considerable number of earthenware vessels,
all broken, a flint evidently used for fire-making or as a gun-flint,
six bone pendants, flat and oblong, each with a pair of holes bored
in one end (five of these were bound together), a metate, and a
mano, and remains of woolen ( ? ) string. The pottery found with
this deposit is all of polychrome ( ? ) ware.
564. Another deposit of the mortuary type was encountered
20 inches deep, arranged as follows: on bottom of the pit was a
woven mat of Yucca leaves, on which food, principally corn and
squash, had been piled in a basket tray, as well as in several
vessels which had been broken to pieces. With these vessels, as
if thrown into the pit, were two broken manos, part of a prayer-
stick painted green, several arrowshafts, without points, in a sheaf,
part of what appeared to be a weaving batten, and an iron knife
with a wooden handle. The object last mentioned, of course, in-
dicates the comparatively recent origin of the deposit; in other
words, that it was post-Spanish. This fact is also borne out by the
character of the pottery which is [This sentence is left unfinished
in the manuscript.]
569. A decorated bowl, broken, in the ash refuse, 20 inches
down. This vessel had contained food.
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 283
570. Various broken decorated vessels of the polychrome type,
and a small cooking-pot. This deposit, extending from 6 to i8
inches below the surface, was on and above a coarse basket tray
that had contained corn and squash-seed, over which a mat had
been placed, evidently for the protection of the food.
576. Another deposit consisted of a small broken red-ware cup,
a lump of white paint, such as is still used for the slip on pottery,
and several lumps of green paint, all beneath a quantity of decayed
corn, among which were the remains of what was probably a
stirring-stick. The upper part of this deposit was only 5 inches
below the surface, which here was the bed of a small wash in the
side of the great refuse heap on the western side of the ruin.
577. Eight inches down was a deposit of broken pottery, in-
cluding two small cooking-pots, lying among and on corn-cobs and
squash-seeds.
578. A similar deposit consisting of parts of several vessels, a
platter of cream ware in four pieces, a small cup without the
handle, and a broken cooking pot ; also a met ate and an unusually
large crude mano. There were slight traces of food and of bark
lining in the pit, which extended from 6 to 18 inches beneath the
surface.
579. A sacrifice of considerable pottery, from 6 to 12 inches
below the surface, mingled with which were traces of food, and a
small piece of black paint.
582. Placed on two nested basket trays, with another beside
them, were the sherds of several earthenware vessels, including a
cooking pot ; in the basket also were remains of corn and squash.
Lying on the southern side of the baskets was what appeared to
have been a sheaf of arrowshafts, also a small paddle, such as may
have been used for stirring food in cooking. Among the sherds
was a small grooved axe. The baskets were 18 inches below the
surface.
606. Near the surface (but the exact depth not recorded), was
a small mat on a piece of matting, on which had been placed a
basket tray in which were a bunch of basket osiers and a quantity
of very small black seeds, known as kusliuitsi, such as were once
used by the Zufii as food. Under the basket was a small quantity
of red paint (hematite) which the native workmen immediately
rubbed on their faces, as they did in so many instances when such
paint was found after we had obtained a sufficient supply for our
own purposes.
284 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
748. In a small pit whose base was 14 inches beneath the sur-
face, were deer-bones and antler, the latter greatly decayed, but
exhibiting slightly worked ends. With these were a small quantity
of glistening black paint which the Zufii regard as sacred, some
white paint, a large animal fetish, and a very small terracotta
figurine of a deer ( ? ) . Beside the pit was more than a peck of
charred corn grains and w^ood charcoal. This deposit was among a
group of cremated human remains placed in earthenware vessels,
with which it may have had some association. On the other hand,
the charred corn and charcoal may have been buried at a time
much earlier than that of the deposit, and their proximity to the
deposit may be fortuitous. The occurence of pits containing
charred food and charcoal, without the presence of cremated
human remains, was not uncommon where cremations were fairly
numerous.
848. Apparently pertaining to a woman was a deposit, 4 feet
3 inches down, consisting of a metate, broken in two, the larger
part inverted over the smaller, with a mano, similarly broken,
lying alongside. Beneath these stones were corn-cobs and the
remains of other food, including squash.
849. Three feet 3 inches beneath the surface, the decayed re-
mains of at least two basket trays filled with corn and other food.
These had been placed on several thicknesses of matting which
covered a square of about 18 inches. With the food were the sherds
of two or three ( ? ) bowls, and of a cup with zigzag ornamentation
in relief — all of polychrome ware. Over the matting were some
shredded bark, a quantity of strings, some medicine known as
dkwa-d-hona, and a bezoar from a deer, similar to the bezoars so
commonly used as hair ornaments.
850. Another deposit so similar to the accompaniments of many
burials, was found 5 feet in depth. On a mat covering an area of
18 to 30 inches, were a quantity of corn and some squash-seeds,
over which was a basket tray containing what appeared to be
sunflower seeds, over which was another basket filled with corn.
To the right of these baskets was another, smaller, in which had
been placed a woven yucca head-ring for carrying pottery recep-
tacles. Over all were two cooking pots, two bowls, and one or two
decorated jars, and 15 inches above them was another decorated
water- jar, all broken. Among their sherds was a flatfish rounded
stick, remains of fabric, and a gourd, probably a dipper. Sur-
mounting the entire deposit were an inverted metate, and three
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 285
broken manos. It is quite evident, from the presence of these
meaHng stones and the head-ring that this deposit, so character-
istic of grave accompaniments in every way, was made in honor
of a woman.
853. Of interest by reason of its simpHcity was a nearby de-
posit, 3 feet 2 inches under the surface, which consisted solely of a
broken mano, under which were some corn-cobs and sunflower seeds.
883. Had it not been placed on a quantity of decayed vegetal
matter, probably food, the larger part of a decorated duck-effigy
vessel thus found might have been regarded as a reject, through
accidental breakage, instead of a deliberate deposit, but the
placing of parts of vessels, and often of insignificant sherds, with
the dead, readily explains why we should regard this as a mortuary
deposit.
898. A pottery deposit on remains of food was found three feet
down, the receptacles, all broken, consisting of tw^o bowls, a small
handled cooking-pot, and half of a squarish squat-vessel that
seems to have been sacrificially "killed" at the bottom.
903. Covering an area of 18 to 24 inches, 35 inches under the
surface, placed on ears of corn which were covered with matting,
was a deposit of earthenware vessels, all broken, consisting of a
small cooking-pot and a small decorated bowl, which had been
"killed" at the base, and filled with food and potter's clay.
Associated with these was an iridescent shell pendant. From the
presence of the potter's clay it may be surmised that this deposit
was made in memory of a woman.
921. Another interesting sacrifical deposit, one foot beneath the
surface, consisted of a piece of matting about 15 inches square,
beneath which, crushed flat, was a polychrome bowl with flaring
rim, mixed with the sherds of which was a quantity of corn,
string-beans, and medicines comprising kwimi ihtapona which is
steeped and the liquid taken by pregnant women, and kwimi
kohun hldtsikya, used by men for stomach ailments.
939. In clean drift-sand, covering the refuse at the point where
found, and 20 inches from the surface, was a deposit covering an
area of only 16 inches by 18 inches, composed of corn on cobs in a
very compact mass, two inches in thickness, on which had been
placed a large broken bowl.
1016. Immediately beneath the surface of the eastern slope of
Hawikuh, where the burials as a rule were older than most of
those in the northern and western sections of the cemetery, was a
286 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
deposit of deer and dog bones, extending to a depth of about a
foot, associated with which were two or more fragmentary vessels
of recent ware. Three feet lower were the remains of a child, with
the usual complement of pottery, that bore no relation to the
deposit.
1017. In the same section of the cemetery, 2| feet down, was
a deposit of the recent period, consisting of a water-jar and a bowl,
both with recent glaze decoration, and also a cooking-pot, all
greatly broken. Among the sherds were several settings of tur-
quois and jet, evidently designed for inlaying, together with a
mass of green paint, some of which, mixed with gum, may have
been a medium of the green-glaze decoration of much of the
recent pottery. The receptacles and their accompanying articles
had been placed on ears of corn and pifion-nuts, and other food
that was not identifiable.
1082. Somewhat similar to the last, and found 8 inches beneath
the surface in the same cemetery, was a deposit consisting of a
small much worn earthenware ladle, over which was a polychrome
sherd, and under and about it charcoal and burnt corn, but no
trace of human bones. As in another instance herein mentioned,
the cremation may have been that of a very young infant (for the
incinerated remains of many infants were found hereabouts), the
recognizable remains of which had disappeared.
DEPOSITS PROBABLY MORTUARY
We now reach the class of deposits similar to those of a more
strictly mortuary character, which we have described, excepting
that no remains of food were found with them. We have already
intimated that in reality these also may have been designed as
mortuary, for the reason that in a comparatively few graves, as
well, no food was encountered. Moreover, it is not improbable
that soft food of an entirely perishable nature, had been placed
in some of the vessels forming at least a part of the deposits, hence
were indistinguishable from the debris of the refuse-heap.
37. The first of the deposits of this kind, encountered 3 to
8 inches beneath the surface, was composed only of three or more
recent vessels in fragments, and a small bowl that had escaped
breakage.
42. Another, found 2 J feet down, consisted of several frag-
mentary vessels of recent glazed ware.
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 287
43. From 18 inches to 2 feet below the surface was a deposit
composed of the fragments of several vessels, as well as a metate
and a mano. There was no question in this instance that the
pottery had been thrown into the pit and deliberately demolished,
and further broken by the stone implements cast upon them. The
presence of the mealing implements suggests that the deposit was
made in behalf of a woman.
84. Another deposit of pottery vessels, broken to pieces, found
beneath the surface from a few inches to one foot in depth.
89. A deposit of two vessels, likewise in fragments, 2 feet
down.
168. A single broken water-jar, at a depth of 6 feet, having
the appearance of deliberate burial rather than having been
thrown away owing to breakage.
179. Several broken pottery vessels and some black paint, at
a depth of 4 feet.
185. A similar deposit of vessels at a depth of 3^ feet, but
without other objects.
191. A deposit, 3 feet beneath the surface, similar to the last.
192. At a depth of 3 to 4 feet, a broken metate and the entire
mano that had been used with it for grinding green and blue
paint ; a broken red-ware bowl ; red, white, green and blue paint ;
pieces of chipped flint and broken or unfinished chipped im-
plements; antler chipping tools; and beneath the entire deposit,
a quantity of unworked antler.
539. Two broken vessels, one a small water-jar, the other a
black cooking-pot, associated with which were a broken prayer-
stick painted blue-green, and an iridescent shell pendant that had
been attached thereto, together with some paint of yellow ocher.
This deposit was a foot beneath the surface.
553. Two bowls in fragments, one of them of yellow ware, the
other red, with flaring rim bearing greenish glaze decoration. This
deposit of pottery was only 6 inches beneath the surface.
568. A mass of several broken vessels, including a small ladle
and a bowl with a round flat bottom which had been broken out.
This deposit lay one foot beneath the surface.
572. Evidently a deposit for a man was one, 4 to 9 inches
beneath the surface, comprising a stone paint mortar with a
double depression in one side and a single one in the other; also
two shaft smoothers, white and green paint, and fragments of a
prayer-stick.
288 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
574. With another deposit, besides the usual complement of
sacrificial pottery was a small bowl that had escaped destruction,
in which were remains of a gourd dipper, and covering the bowl,
the remnants of decayed woven fabric, on which had been placed
a floor-and-hair brush, such as are still in common use by the
Zufii. Among the potsherds was an antler punch. Doubtless this
sacrifice was made in behalf of a woman.
697. With its top 8 inches below the surface was a large plain
jar filled with fine ashes and containing some small animal bones,
all of which had been covered with a slab of stone. The jar was
greatly broken, bat probably by the weight of the stone covering.
No human remains were traceable in the ashes, consequently the
deposit bore no apparent relation to various cremated remains
found in earthenware vessels not far away.
1 1 13. In the ancient cremation cemetery, quite alone, a partly
corrugated cooking-pot, in fragments, almost touching the surface.
Unlike any of the incinerary urns, there was no charcoal and no
burnt food in association.
1174. Likewise among the cremation burials was a deposit of
many sherds of vessels, 20 inches under the surface, almost
beneath a cremation, but it bore no relation to it. Among the
potsherds was an unburned bone awl.
1 199. A large bowl was found 15 inches beneath the surface,
dissociated from the numerous cremation burials uncovered in its
vicinity.
1068. A broken polychrome bowl, probably of the cremation
period, found in the shallow cemetery in the fairly level ground
northwest of the northwestern corner of the ruin. From this cem-
etery were uncovered many cremations, immediately beneath the
surface, but the bowl referred to was isolated. In numerous in-
stances the incinerated bones found here were deposited in small
pits, not in vessels. No food was found with the bowl, and it may
possibly have had no sacrificial meaning.
SACERDOTAL DEPOSITS
For want of a better name we will term sacerdotal those
deposits that had the appearance of being of a strictly religious
nature, although not that the others were lacking in religious
significance. It will be observed that in some instances food,
especially corn, was placed with some of these sacerdotal de-
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 289
posits, but perhaps more as a sacrifice of that sacred food to the
Corn Maidens, or the Mothers of Corn, than for the supposed use
of the departed.
907. Perhaps the most interesting deposit of all if we consider
the sacred character of the materials composing it (and it was
certainly so regarded by the Zuhi), was in an approximately cir-
cular pit that had been excavated in the refuse-heap, 6 feet in
depth by 2 feet in diameter, in the bottom of which was a central
depression 7 inches deep, 9 inches in diameter at the top, and
tapering to 4 inches at the bottom. Standing upright at the base
were eight prayer-sticks with the remains of their wTapping at the
upper ends, but no trace of the feathers remained. Beneath the
prayer-sticks was a small wrapped ring of vegetal material used
in certain ceremonies and called owehi kaiitsikona. About these
prayer-sticks food (corn on cobs, piiion-nuts, and a small quantity
of squash-seeds) had been placed in the lower depression as well
as in the main pit, almost completely filling them. On this food
were various rounded sticks, some straight, others curved (one
of them charred at one end), together wdth some medicine plants,
a small ear of corn with its stem, a small basket tray, a mano
broken in two, a small cooking-pot, a large bowl with an unusual
yellow glaze decoration (both vessels were broken), and a w^oven
Yucca ring [hdkine) for carrying earthenware receptacles on the
head. Over these objects had been laid several mats, through
which some of the potsherds protruded. The Zufii still perform a
ceremony in w^hich is dug a hole to the depth of an arm-length,
in the bottom of which are placed turquois, shell, and prayer-meal
of corn, and at the bottom the owelii kaiitsikona, at the side of
which are the following prayer-sticks [Ulikinawe) , tied in pairs:
A black and a blue ; a blue and a yellow (these are the pekwin dne) ;
a blue and a black, representing the Priests of the Bow; two white
ones, representing the Make mosona, or Fire Priest. All these
prayer-sticks are of the length of the middle finger. A ninth stick,
a black one, symbolizes the okya Make mosona, or Fire Priestess ;
it is the smallest of all, being made the length of the first two
joints of the middle finger. Next two long sticks tied together, are
planted upright, one [tsemine) straight, painted yellow to represent
the sun; the other (tdpowane), curved, painted black, to symbolize
the moon. The small stick that was charred at one end, found in
the sacrificial deposit, was explained by the Zufii custom of em-
ploying, in the ceremony referred to, a similar stick which is
19
290 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
burned at one end and fire "eaten" therefrom. Some of the plant
medicine found was identified by a medicine-man as make dwan
dkwame (fire medicine), an unidentified stalk used for rubbing on
the limbs, especially by dancers, to relieve aches. The feathers
attached to the prayer-sticks, it was said, are those of the bluebird
(hlaialiiko) , while the strings with which they were fastened were
of hlinina home. The young ear of corn with its stem was used for
asperging the medicine from the medicine-bowl found near the
top of the deposit. The entire sacrifice, if such it was, shows the
tenacity of Zufii religious custom, notwithstanding the direct in-
fluences of civilization for nearly three centuries.
277. The sacred paraphernalia of a medicine-man, consisting
of the following objects which had been placed in a woven bag, the
only evidence of which was the faint impressions of the fabric
on the white paint which had formed part of the contents: 6
projectile points; a piece of iron; red and white paint; 6 pieces
of turquois; a quartz crystal; a concretion; a banded jasper
pebble, polished; a polished agate charm-stone; black medicine.
The deposit had been placed on a piece of fabric of irregular shape
and of unknown material, as only slight traces of the weaving were
visible ; but it had the appearance of thin cotton cloth laid on a
piece of hide, possibly deerskin. Round about the deposit for a
considerable space was a quantity of yellowish material which may
have been corn-meal, about two inches in thickness, similar to the
mealy substance so often found in graves and sometimes in pot-
tery vessels in houses that had not been burned. On the fabric
was a very white substance, probably prayer-meal, and round
about for a space of 2| feet were lumps of white paint, similar to
that which had been in the bag, and the scattered sherds of
a bowl.
529. At a depth of 2 feet 2 inches, a small woven bag con-
taining green paint, the copper salts of which had preserved the
fabric. The bag rested on a rounded potsherd. This deposit was
in a cemetery devoted to the burial of cremated human remains.
792. In a compact mass, 19 inches down, the paraphernalia of
a medicine-man, consisting of two large and four small spherical
stones, five quartz crystals, an amethystine crystal, a shark's
tooth, a small oblong stone, and three eagle ( ? ) claws. The sign-
ificance of this group of objects was at once recognized by the
Zufii, but it was not possible, of course, for them to say for what
particular purposes the individual articles were employed.
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 29I
940. A sacrificial deposit, its top 5 feet 4 inches down, com-
posed of what appeared to be corn-meal mixed with sand, in
which were several pieces of green paint, thirteen turquois beads
together as if strung, and a swallow-stick of the Hlewekwe society.
There were also a chipped knife or drill-point, a small quantity
of red paint, and three flint chips. The Hlewekwe stick was
directed east-west, but the other objects were scattered over an
area about 18 inches square.
955. A deposit found at the unusual depth of 9 feet 3 inches in
the northern part of the cemetery, at the bottom of the refuse-
heap, and therefore of ancient origin. The objects, as follows, were
in a pit about 16 inches in diameter, and were mingled with corn
in the grain and on the cobs, as well as beans, all completely
charred; Several pieces of stone slabs painted in black, yellow,
red and green designs, but not enough of the parts remained to
enable reconstruction; pieces of shaft-smoothers; a shallow paint
mortar, some wooden knobs, a pointed implement of slate, part
of a bone awl ; several chipped flints ; several quartz crystals and
pieces that had been flaked off by heat ; an arrowpoint ; two shell
beads; fragments of cloth; a tiny concretion; a fragment of a
shell or turtleshell pendant; red and green paint; two wrapped
turkey-beards; a bone tube. Like the corn and beans, all these
objects had been subjected to the action of fire. The ancient
character of this deposit cannot be questioned, even in the absence
of pottery in association with it, for it lay at the very bottom of
the great refuse-heap, at the approximate level of numerous cre-
mation deposits, which are of considerably earlier date than the
earthenware with the so-called recent glaze decoration.
1020. As if the paraphernalia of a medicine-man, found 18
inches below the surface, in a compact mass, were three chipped
stone knives, two concretions, a fossil shell stained with ocher,
and a quartzite pebble somewhat resembling the form of a bird.
1098. A rather strange and simple deposit consisted of eleven
tinkling-stones, called hdmilili, split along the line of cleavage of
silicified wood, and also a compact stalactite, found 4 inches be-
neath the surface in the cremation cemetery. The hdmilili are
said to have once been tied to the edge of dance-kilts to produce
a tinkling sound when the wearer was dancing or moving about.
Many such were found in the refuse-heaps, and a few in the graves,
but not in such position as to indicate that they were used as
tinklers on everyday garments.
19*
292 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
ANIMAL BURIALS
Among the sacred birds of the Zufii, at present day as well
as in early times, are the eagle and the turkey, which, especially
the former, is still reared for its feathers, which are attached to
prayer-sticks and to other sacred objects, and worn in the hair on
certain ceremonial occasions.
In his letter to the Viceroy Mendoza, written at Hawikuh,
August 3, 1540, Coronado said: "We found fowls [turkeys], but
only a few, and yet there are some. The Indians tell me that they
do not eat these in any of the seven villages, but that they keep
them merely for the sake of procuring the feathers. ''^ Castaheda
in his account of the Coronado expedition, wrote especially of the
turkeys in the Pueblo region, saying, "There are a great many
native fowl in these provinces, and cocks with great hanging
chins. "2 Captive eagles, however, do not seem to have been men-
tioned by the Spanish chroniclers, possibly because they were no
longer strange to them.
By reason of the sacred character of turkeys and eagles, there-
fore, it is not surprising that remains of these birds should have
been unearthed in the Hawikuh cemetery, buried in much the
same manner as the human dead.
308. A noteworthy instance of the regard in which the turkey
was held was shown by the discovery, in the western section of the
cemetery, of the fragments of the shell of a turkey egg, mingled
with the bones of the embryo, found 2 feet beneath the surface.
Six inches from the remains of the egg was a small quantity of
granular blue paint, and 18 inches away, the larger part of a
decorated bowl and part of a large decorated water-jar that could
hardly have been associated with anything else. No other bird
burial was accompanied with receptacles.
867. A similar deposit associated with the turkey was another
small mass of broken shells of an egg, found 8 feet 8 inches beneath
the surface. Although only 27 inches away from a skeleton and at
a level of 6 inches above its skull, the egg-shells had no association
with it, indeed in no grave were the remains of turkey-eggs found.
154. Another burial consisted of the skeleton of a turkey,
minus the skull, which had been dug away by a prairie-dog. The
burial was 3I feet beneath the surface.
1 Winship, G. P., 1896, p. 521.
2 Ibid., p. 559.
CEREMONIAL DEPOSITS 293
259. In another place, iij feet down, was the entire skeleton
of a turkey, with a small concretion beside the bones. The gravelly
contents of the bird's craw were readily recognized.
69. In only one single instance were the remains of the eagle
found, excepting, of course, stray bones and artifacts made from
eagle-bones. The burial noted was composed of the skeletal re-
mains of two eagles, 12 inches below the surface, closely accom-
panied with an earthenware bowl.
Numerous burials of the domestic dog {Cams familiaris) were
found, sometimes with a small quantity of food. These were
usually the remains of puppies, which had been buried with such
care that bones still preserved the sleeping position of the animal,
and not the disarrangment that would have resulted had the dogs
been merely thrown into the pits. The dog burials occurred at
almost all depths in the refuse, as if made during a long period.
In one case (158) the bones of the puppy were accompanied with
the ulna of a wild turkey and the broken skull of a white parrot
(Amazona alUfrons).
226. A strange deposit consisted of a mass of broken human
and animal bones, 6 feet 4 inches deep, as if the remains of a feast.
The Zuiii reluctantly stated that in ancient times their ancestors,
under stress of hunger, ate human flesh. Among the bones were
part of a knife made from a deer's rib.
Nothing further need be said at this time in regard to these
interesting deposits. When the final report on the results of the
Hawikuh excavations is prepared, however, special attention will
be given to the relative age of these and of other remains, on the
basis of the pottery accompaniments and of other important
evidence. We have already seen that mortuary and other cere-
monial deposits were made from the earliest period of Hawikuh
until after the coming of the Spaniards.
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1882. The Father of the Pueblos. Harper's New Monthly Magazine,
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1937. Handbook of Northern Arizona Pottery Wares. Museum of
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1930. Some Southwestern Pottery Types, Series I. Medallion Papers,
No. 8. Gila Pueblo. Globe, Arizona.
Harrington, M. R.
1929. Ruins and Legends of Zuni Land. Master key. Vol. 3, No. i,
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1945. The Excavation of Los Muertos and Neighboring Ruins in the
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1939. A Square Kiva at Hawikuh. In So Live the Works of Men,
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1942. A Prehistoric Hitler? Masterkey, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 220-221.
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1 93 1. Catalogue of Human Crania in the United States National
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1957. The Cultivation and Weaving of Cotton in the Prehistoric South-
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1958. Pecos, New Mexico: Archaeological Notes. Robert S. Peabody
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191 6. Zuni Potsherds. American Museum of Natural History, Anthro-
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296 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Leigh, R. W.
1925. Dental Pathology of Indian Tribes of Varied Environmental and
Food Conditions. American Journal of Physical Anthropology , o.s.,
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1 89 1. A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola. Bureau of
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1944. Racial Prehistory in the Southwest and the Hawikuh Zunis.
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1932. The Mercurio Volante of Don Carlos de Sigiienza y Gongora: An
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1952. Four Late Prehistoric Kivas at Point of Pines, Arizona. Uni-
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APPENDIX I
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS
RELATING TO THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
This selected bibliography, compiled on somewhat arbitrary
lines, lists significant titles relating to the excavations at Hawikuh
or having a direct bearing on their interpretation. In addition,
there are a few titles that are expository of Hodge's professional
career, some of which have been helpful in reconstructing the
activities at Hawikuh from 1917 through 1923. This listing is not
exhaustive in either context. There is no pretense of scholarly
completeness or of the inclusion of all published references to
Hawikuh or the Zuiii area, which are very numerous; many of
these are included in History of Hawikuh. Nor has it been attempt-
ed to present a complete list of publications by or about Hodge
himself, but only those that have a reasonably close bearing on
the work of the Hendricks-Hodge expedition. Numerous brief
articles in the nature merely of news reports have been omitted.
In addition to this bibliography, there is in the preceding
section a list of the references specifically cited in the various
chapters.
Amsden, Charles A.
1936. An Important Anniversary. Masterkey, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 148-
150. Los Angeles.
Anderson, Arthur J. O.
1958, Frederick Webb Hodge, 1864-1956. Hispanic American Histori-
cal Review, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 263-267. New York.
Anonymous
1917a, Excavations at Hawikuh. El Palacio, Vol. 4, No. 4, p. 109.
Santa Fe.
1917&. "In the Field." El Palacio, Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 89. Santa Fe.
1917c. In "Anthropological Notes," American Anthropologist, Vol. 19,
No. 2, p. 324. Lancaster.
1918a. In "Anthropological Notes," American Anthropologist, Vol. 20,
No. 2, p. 129. Lancaster.
I9i8fc. In "Anthropological Notes," American Anthropologist, Vol. 20,
No. 2, p. 246. Lancaster.
298
APPENDIX I 299
192 1. "Turquois Work at Hawikuh," El Palacio, Vol. 10, No. 11, pp.
3-5. Santa Fe.
1924^. Motion-pictures at Zuni. Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, Indian Notes, Vol. i, No. i, pp. 29-30. New York.
19246. A Zuni Model. Museum of the American Indian, Heye Found-
ation, Indian Notes, Vol. i. No. i, pp. 30-34. New York.
193 1. New Director Chosen. Masterkey, Vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 132-134. Los
Angeles.
1932. Teluli. Masterkey, Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 184-185. Los Angeles.
1936. Dating Pueblo Ruins. Masterkey, Vol. 10, No. 3, p. 112. Los
Angeles.
1950. Frederick Webb Hodge. El Palacio, Vol. 57, No. 5, pp. 153-156.
Santa Fe.
Cadzow, Don
1924, The Seventh City of Cibola. Travel, Vol. 43, No. 6, pp. 18-20,
39-40-
Carroll, John A.
1959- Frederick Webb Flodge, 1864-1956. Arizona and the West, Vol. i.
No. 3, pp. 202-205. Tucson.
Cole, Fay-Cooper
1957. Frederick Webb Hodge, 1 864-1956. American Anthropologist,
Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 517-520. Menasha.
Crotty, Homer D.
1956. A Note on Frederick Webb Hodge. In "Books and Serials
Relating to the Southwest." Dawson's Book Shop, Los Angeles.
Dentzel, Carl S.
1956a. [Frederick Webb Hodge]. Hoja Volante, Zamorano Club, Los
Angeles.
19566. Tribute to Frederick Webb Hodge. Southern California Chapter
of Antiquarian Booksellers of America, Bulletin. Los Angeles.
1956c. Dr. Frederick Webb Hodge, 1864-1956. Masterkey, Vol. 30,
No. 6, pp. 176-178; also cover photo. Los Angeles.
Dobie, J. Frank
1956. [Frederick Webb Hodge]. American Statesman. Austin.
Fewkes, J. Walter
1920. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology. Annual Report
of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . igiS,
Appendix 2, pp. 44-45. Washington.
1 92 1. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology. Annual Report
of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . 1919,
Appendix 2, p. 53. Washington.
Fleming, Harry Craig
1924. Medical Observations on the Zuni Indians: Resume of Medical
Observations made During the Hendricks-Hodge Expedition to
Hawikuh, New Mexico. Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, Contributions, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 39-47. New York.
300 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Gilbert, Hope
1942. He Found Six of the Fabled "Seven Cities of Cibola." Desert,
Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 5-10.
Harrington, M. R.
1929. Ruins and Legends of Zuni Land. Mastevkey, Vol. 3, No. i,
pp. 5-16. Los Angeles.
Hodge, Frederick W.
1895. The First Discovered City of Cibola. American Anthropologist
(o. s.), Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 142-152. Lancaster.
I9i8«. Excavations at Hawikuh, New Mexico. In "Explorations and
Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 191 7," Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 68, No. 12, pp. 61-72. Washington.
191 85. Excavations at the Zuni Pueblo of Hawikuh in 191 7. Art and
Archaeology, Vol. 7, No. 9, pp. 367-379. Washington.
1920a. The Age of the Zuni Pueblo of Kechipauan. Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs,
Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 41-60. New York.
1920&. Hawikuh Bonework. Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 61-
151. New York.
1921^^. Turquois Work at Hawikuh, New Mexico. Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, Leaflets, No. 2. New York.
1921Z?. Work at Hawikuh. El Palacio, Vol. 11, No. 9, p. 118. Santa
Fe.
1922. Recent Excavations at Hawikuh. El Palacio, Vol. 12, No. i,
pp. 1-16. Santa Fe.
1923. Circular Kivas near Hawikuh. Museum of the American Indian,
Heye Foundation, Contributions, Vol. 7, No. i, pp. 1-37. New
York.
1924^^. Pottery of Hawikuh, Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation, Indian Notes, Vol. i, No. i, pp. 8-15. New York.
19246. Excavations at Kechipauan, New Mexico. Museum of the Amer-
ican Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes, Vol. i. No. i, pp.
35-36. New York.
1924c. Snake-pens at Hawikuh, New Mexico. Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes, Vol. i, No. 3, pp. 111-119.
New York.
1926. The Six Cities of Cibola, 1581-1680. New Mexico Historical
Review, Vol. i. No. 4, pp. 478-488. Albuquerque.
1931. [Hawikuh]. In "Told at the Explorer's Club," edited by F. A.
Blossom, pp. 167-172. New York.
1935. Coral Among Early Southwestern Indians. Masterkey, Vol. 9,
No. 5, pp. 157-159. Los Angeles.
1936. Bezoars. Masterkey, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 190-191. Los Angeles.
1937a. History of Hawikuh, New Mexico, One of the So-called Cities
of Cibola. Publications of the Frederick Webb Hodge Anniversary
Publication Fund, Vol. i. Southwest Museum, Los Angeles.
19376. "Dig your Cellar." Masterkey, Vol. 11, No. i, pp. 20-21. Los
Angeles.
APPENDIX I 301
1939. A Square Kiva at Hawikuh. In So Live the Works of Men,
Seventieth A nniversary Volume Honoring Edgar Lee Hewett, edited
by D. B. Brand and F. E. Harvey, pp. 195-215. Albuquerque.
1942. A Prehistoric Hitler? Masterkey, Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 220-221.
Los Angeles.
1943. Coral Among the Southwestern Indians. Masterkey, Vol. 17,
No. 3, pp. 99-102. Los Angeles.
1952. Turkeys at Hawikuh. Masterkey, Vol. 26, No. i, pp. 13-14. Los
Angeles.
Hrdlicka, Ales
1 93 1. Catalogue of Human Crania in the United States National
Museum Collections. United States National Museum, Proceedings,
Vol. 78, Art. 2, pp. 1-95. Washington.
Judd, Neil M., Harrington, M. R., and Lothrop, S. K.
1957. Frederick Webb Hodge, 1864-1956. American Antiquity, Vol. 22,
No. 4, pp. 401-404. Salt Lake City.
Reed, Erik K. ^
1955. Painted Pottery and Zuni History. Southwestern Journal of
Anthropology, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 178-193. Albuquerque.
Seltzer, Carl C.
1944. Racial Prehistory in the Southwest and the Hawikuh Zunis.
Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Papers,
Vol. 23, No. I. Cambridge.
Twitchell, R. E.
192 1. Frederick Webb Hodge and Excavations at Hawikuh. El Palacio,
Vol. II, No. 3, p. 33. Santa Fe.
APPENDIX II
DECORATED POTTERY OF THE ZUNI AREA
hy
Richard B. Woodbury and Nathalie F. S. Woodbury
THE descriptions presented here were not originaUy written
for inclusion in this volume, but since their publication has
been regrettably delayed and they are essential for eval-
uating the cultural and chronological position of Hawikuh, they
are appended to a volume that is otherwise written mainly in
terms of Hodge's own notes and intentions. As pointed out in
Chapter III Hodge used numerous and varied terms for the pottery
he excavated at Hawikuh; at the time he wrote, in the 1920's, the
binomial terminology (a geographical term and a descriptive
term) had not become standard procedure for reporting South-
western pottery. Hodge vacillated between descriptive terms, such
as Spier had already introduced for prehistoric Zuni pottery, and
simple letter or number designation. We have used current termi-
nology to supplement and replace Hodge's terms, in the interests
of consistency and clarity.
These descriptions are based on a review of the published
information, and on the following three bodies of ceramic material :
1. A group of 93 vessels excavated at Heshotauthla by Hodge
for the Hemenway Expedition in 1888-89, ^"^^ ^ow in the Peabody
Museum of Harvard University. Fewkes published a general account
of this collection in 1909, with wholly inadequate illustrations.
2. Sherds, and a very few restorable vessels, from our 1953
site survey of the Ramah-El Morro-Zuni area and our 1954-55
excavations at Atsinna ruin on top of Inscription Rock.
3. The very large collection of vessels excavated by Hodge at
Hawikuh and Kechipawan from 1917 to 1923, stored (and partly
on exhibit) in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Found-
ation, New York. We analyzed these in the summer of 1958,
matching each of the design drawings prepared under Hodge's
direction with the appropriate specimen, determining its type in
302
APPENDIX II 303
current terms, and making brief notes on shape, color, and other
details. Because some vessels were apparently never restored, a
few drawings remained unidentified. Nevertheless, this provided
an enormous body of information with which to supplement the
type descriptions already begun on the basis of previously men-
tioned material. Only the undecorated vessels were slighted,
relatively few pieces having been shipped from the field to the
museum and none, of course, being included in the specimens
drawn. We classified 1541 vessels from Hawikuh and 115 from
Kechipawan in the museum collections, of which design drawings
had been made for 748. We have selected drawings of 525 vessels,
as broad and representative a group as possible, to reproduce in
this volume, together with a small number of photographs to
indicate typical shapes and design placements for each type.
Unfortunately the design drawings did not include an indication
of vessel shape or of the position of a design on a vessel.
In accepting or modifying the terminology of our predecessors
in the study of pottery in the Zuni area we have been guided by a
desire to discard only such type names as proved ambiguous or
are based on rare and atypical samples. It has been impossible to
equate exactly each of the pottery types, as defined here, with a
corresponding term in the various descriptions and preliminary
classifications by Hodge, although in most instances it is fairly
certain what kinds of pottery he was referring to. The initial
attempt at precise definition of these types was made by Colton
and Hargrave (1937), who were handicapped by their unavoidable
dependence on sherds from the western limit of distribution of
Zuni pottery and by small samples. Reed, in 1955, proposed some
much-needed modifications in their names and dates, and we have
followed most of his suggestions. One major problem remains
unsolved — establishing a satisfactory division of Matsaki Poly-
chrome into an earlier and a later type or sub-type. Hodge
recognized this need and occasionally attempted a distinction in
his field notes, but in the end lumped as "Late Polychrome" what
is now called Matsaki Polychrome. Reed proposed to call the
earlier part of the continuum of buff-surfaced pottery Matsaki
Polychrome and the later part Concepcion Polychrome, but failed
to indicate the criteria for such a distinction. This pottery was
made from about 1475 to the abandonment of Hawikuh in 1680,
and almost certainly underwent significant modifications during
these two centuries. Nevertheless, the records from Hav^dkuh
304 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
have not yielded, as we had hoped, a stratigraphic or styHstic
basis for making a meaningful and defensible division. We have
left Matsaki Polychrome as a unit, hoping that further research
will provide the data for chronological separation.
Spelling and pronunciation of Zuni names have numerous
variations. In general, however, we have chosen spellings that
make the pronunciation of Anglicizations as easy and unambiguous
as possible ; the accent is on the first syllable in the following place
names: Hawikuh, Heshotauthla, Kechipawan, Kwakina, Matsaki,
and Pinnawa.
The dating of pottery types is difficult, even when numerous
tree-ring dates associated with specimens of the pottery can be
obtained. There are no tree-ring dates from Hawikuh, except for
some of doubtful significance from the kiva in the plaza (Douglass,
1935 and 1938; Hodge, 1939); and no datable specimens were
obtained in our excavations at Atsinna ruin, El Morro National
Monument. Therefore the dates included in the following pottery
descriptions are a composite of previously published estimates
and our own impressions based on checking the occurrence of
these types at recently reported sites, particularly those of the
St. Johns area excavated by Martin and Rinaldo. They should
be regarded as the best guesses available at present, but subject
to improvement on the basis of future work.
Finally, a word should be said about the inclusions in these
descriptions of "unnamed types," an anomaly that is repugnant
to all taxonomists. These descriptions refer to groups of vessels
numerous enough and distinctive enough to make one suspect
that they can eventually contribute to our understanding of Zuni
culture history — the goal of all ceramic classification. These types
of pottery are, however, not common enough or well enough
documented, particularly in terms of chronology and geographical
distribution, to justify formalizing their attributes with a type
name at present. The information is included, nevertheless, for
whatever use it may have for others working on related problems.
HESHOTAUTHLA POLYCHROME
See Figures 39, 40 and Plate 20
Distinguishing Characteristics. Bowls : Interior slipped red, with
black glaze decoration in broad zone around wall ; exterior slipped
red with encircling decoration just below rim in narrow white
APPENDIX II 305
lines, sometimes with a few black lines added. Jars: Very rare, and
therefore poorly known.
Synonyms. "... Bowls of thin red or orange-red ware ... or-
namented interiorly ... in black or dark-green glaze, and exter-
nally ... in white non-glaze . . .," Hodge, 1920, pp. 54-55.
Type B. "Black or green glaze on red or orange-red," Hodge,
1923, p. 29.
Type II, Hodge, 1924, p. 10.
"Black and White Paint-on-Red" — in part, Spier, 1917, pp.
312-17.
"Heshota-uthla Glaze-Polychrome," Reed, 1955, p. 184.
"Heshota PolychromxC," Carlson, 1961, pp. 230-1.
Previous Descriptions. Kidder, 1936, pp. 363-6, 387-8. Colton
and Hargrave, 1937, pp. 1 13-14.
Illustrations. Hough, 1903, PI. 74, from Biddahochee, Ari-
zona.
Fewkes, 1909, Pis. IV, 8; V, 2, 4, 7, 8, probably all from
Heshotauthla, New Mexico.
Kidder, 1936, Figs. 290, 291, from Pecos, New Mexico.
Stubbs and Stallings, 1953, Fig. 57, a-c, e and PI. 12, from
Pindi Pueblo, New Mexico.
Martin and Willis, 1940, PL 118, from several sites in eastern
Arizona and western New Mexico.
Rinaldo, 1959, Fig. 89, sherds from Foote Canyon Pueblo,
Arizona.
Martin and Rinaldo, i960, Fig. 109, sherds from Table Rock
Pueblo, Arizona.
Martin, Rinaldo, and Longacre, 1961, Fig. 94, sherds from
Hooper Ranch Pueblo, Arizona.
Basis of Present Description. Previous descriptions cited above;
surface collections made by us in 1953 at sites in the Ramah-El
Morro area ; sherds and a few restorable bowls from our 1954-55
excavation at Atsinna ruin, on top of Inscription Rock; 12 bowls
excavated by Hodge at Hawikuh, now in the Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York; 12 bowls ex-
cavated by Hodge at Heshotauthla, in Peabody Museum, Harvard
University.
Estimated Dates. 1275 or 1300 to 1400.
Area of Abundance. From El Morro-Ramah area of western
New Mexico to a little west and south of Zuni Pueblo.
Construction. By coiling, followed by scraping.
306 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Paste. Usually dark gray, occasionally light gray or buff.
Carbon streak rare. Temper of fine angular particles (occasionally
medium size), usually light gray to buff, sometimes red or black;
also some rounded particles. Shepard (1936, p. 364) identifies this
as sherd temper and discusses the inclusion of various minerals.
Wall Thickness. Usually about 0.5 cm., rarely more than 0.6
or less than 0.4 cm.
Surface Color. Red or orange-red, sometimes reddish brown or
gray; interiors of bowls are often darker or browner than exteriors.
Predominant Munsell colors are 10 R 5/6, 4/6 and 2.5 YR 6/6,
5/6. Firing clouds very common.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors (and probably jar
exteriors) are well smoothed, slipped, and moderately polished.
Slip is thick enough to be seen easily in cross section; it rarely
flakes off. Paint streaking by polishing tool is common, particularly
on bowl exteriors. Jar interiors unslipped.
Shapes. Bowls predominate, invariably a simple profile, slightly
incurved at rim, with maximum diameter only slightly below rim,
wall curving smoothly into rounded base. Jars very rare; of about
1700 sherds recorded from Atsinna excavation only 11 were from
jars, apparently with large globular bodies and small vertical
necks. Rims are usually direct, rounded, and unthickened; some-
times squared or bevelled inward; rarely thinned and slightly
everted.
Decoration. Bowl interiors: Continuous band beginning about
0.5 cm. below undecorated rim and usually 6 to 8 cm. wide, always
bordered by single narrow to medium line above and below.
Decorated zone rarely divided into rectangular panels, usually
filled with large repeating elements laid out obliquely and with
elements sloping down from rim to left, but interlocked for con-
tinuous design. Common motifs include opposed interlocking keys,
stepped lines, pendent dots, groups of four to six parallel narrow
lines, solid triangles (sometimes with round or square open center
containing dot) ; hatching is very rare, curvilinear elements absent.
Brush work is usually sloppy but over-all layouts are boldly con-
ceived and carefully fitted to space.
Bowl exteriors: Band of white-line decoration, forming a
narrower zone than on interior; about 20% of sherds at Atsinna
also had black used on exterior, as separate broad vertical lines
between white elements, or less often as narrow border for part
or all of white elements. White decoration is usually in a con-
APPENDIX II 307
tinuous band divided into panels, less often in isolated units widely
spaced, either connected by single oblique lines or unconnected.
Common motifs are stepped lines, stepped triangles, and keys.
Solid or hatched areas absent. Brush work often careless. Width
of line quite uniform on any single vessel, but ranges from o.i to
0.4 cm. ; this overlaps the narrower end of the range of widths for
St. Johns Polychrome exterior decoration, and specimens clearly
intermediate between the types occasionally occur.
Jars: Too few specimens for description.
Paint. Black nearly always glazed, usually thick and dense,
sometimes bubbly, occasionally green, occasionally overtired to
brownish matte. White usually thick and chalky, sometimes thin
and streaky, and weathers away easily although less fugitive than
on St. Johns Polychrome.
Comparisons. The derivation of Heshotauthla Polychrome from
St. Johns Polychrome and their close similarity have long been
apparent (Kidder, 1936, p. 363). Heshotauthla Polychrome is
distinguished not only by its narrower white line work on the
exterior, and by its glaze paint, but by the layout and commonly
used elements of its interior decoration; for example, Hesho-
tauthla Polychrome lacks the all-over interior decoration, the
curvilinear designs, the hatching, and the central star layout that
are common in St. Johns Polychrome. Nevertheless, occasional
St. Johns Polychrome bowls clearly foreshadow the beginnings
of Heshotauthla Polychrome [see, for example, W. and H. S.
Gladwin, 1931, PI. 28, B, left, and PI. 36, C, D; and Martin and
Willis, 1940, PI. 99, 5).
The recognition of a ''sub-glaze" variant of St. Johns Poly-
chrome (Kidder, 1936, p. 362), usually with exterior decoration in
broad white lines but sometimes with narrow lines, emphasizes
the essential stylistic continuity from St. Johns Polychrome to
Heshotauthla Polychrome.
Carlson (1961, pp. 28-9) has defined a "Heshota Style" in
his important study of White Mountain Red Ware, and distin-
guishes it from the closely related Pinedale Style, both of which
arose, in their respective regions, from the St. Johns Style. Carlson
suggests the following features as characteristic of the Heshota
Style : use of narrow lines ; a more open appearance than Pinedale ;
a great amount of the background color showing ; layouts usually
banded, and often sectioned vertically ; occasional use of a trefoil
layout ; emphasis on the wall rather than the bottom in the deco-
ao*
308 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
ration of bowl interiors. He also points out that framing lines are
about the same width as hatching lines, and that running diamonds
frequently form primary motifs. The importance of his analysis,
aside from careful definition of certain decorative features, is his
demonstration of the close relationships existing among St. Johns,
Pinedale, and Heshotauthla Polychrome.
Several archaeologists have regarded a variously defined type
called Springerville Polychrome as a transition from St. Johns
Polychrome to Pinedale Polychrome. Carlson (1961, pp. 127-33 a)
has defined it as a variety of St. Johns Polychrome, which is a
more reasonable status for it, and summarizes its position as
follows :
Springerville Variety is differentiated from typical St. Johns
Polychrome by the occurrence of black lines or bars in addition
to the white decoration on the exteriors of otherwise typical
St. Johns Polychrome bowls. It also appears to more fre-
quently have an orange rather than a red slip than is true for
St. Johns Polychrome as a whole. It is a late variety of
St. Johns Polychrome and centers in the upper Little Colo-
rado area. It appears on present evidence to be diagnostic for
the time period between A.D. 1250 and 1300.
This variety of St. Johns Polychrome is transitional to Hesho-
tauthla Polychrome as well as to Pinedale Polychrome, as Carlson
points out ; except for having broader white-line decoration and a
more orange surface color, it could easily be considered a variation
of Heshotauthla Polychrome. It was being made just prior to and
during the development of Heshotauthla Polychrome.
Quite close similarities also exist between Heshotauthla Poly-
chrome and Glaze I Red (Agua Fria Glaze-on-Red, of the Rio
Grande and Pecos valleys of New Mexico). These similarities are
in bowl shape, in design layout, and in elements of interior
decoration, but Glaze I Red has a slip so thin as to be difficult to
see, usually has the interior band divided into rectangular panels,
and lacks white decoration on the exterior {see Kidder, 1936,
pp. 604-5).
It should be noted that several of the vessels illustrated by
Fewkes (1909), which Kidder uses for his comparisons of Glaze I
Red and Heshotauthla Polychrome, are actually St. Johns Poly-
chrome or Kwakina Polychrome.
APPENDIX II 309
HESHOTAUTHLA BLACK-ON-RED
(Not Illustrated)
Distinguishing Characteristics. Red slip, black or greenish glaze
decoration, usually gray paste. The same as Heshotauthla Poly-
chrome but lacking white for the decoration.
Synonyms. "B. Black or green glaze on red or orange-red,"
Hodge, 1923, p. 29.
'TI ... Red or orange, sometimes fired to brownish or grayish,
ornamented usually in geometric patterns in black or green glaze,"
Hodge, 1924, p. 10.
Pinnawa Black-on-Red, Colton and Hargrave, 1937, p. 113. As
Reed (1955, p. 185) points out, a different name is not needed and
is unnecessarily confusing for this close relative of Heshotauthla
Polychrome.
Illustrations. Fewkes, 1909, Pis. II, jo; III, 8 (this vessel is
actually red, not yellowish as shown) ; IV, 6',y, 6.
Hodge, 1923, PL XXVI, a-c.
Basis of Present Description. Sherds from 1954-55 excavation
at Atsinna ruin. El Morro National Monument, and fiwQ vessels
from Heshotauthla in the collections of Peabody Museum, Harvard
University.
Estimated Dates. 1275 or 1300 to 1400 (the same as for Hesho-
tauthla Polychrome) .
Area of Abundance. From the vicinity of El Morro west to the
historic Zuni towns.
Construction. Coiling, followed by scraping.
Paste. Usually dark gray, sometimes light gray or orange-buff.
Carbon streak common in sherds of lighter-colored paste. Tempered
with fine particles, light-colored, angular, sometimes a few dark
gray.
Wall Thickness. Usually 0.4 to 0.5 cm., rarely more than 0.6
or less than 0.4 cm.
Surface Color. Bowl exteriors and interiors and jar exteriors
are red to orange-red, often brownish or grayish. Jar interiors
light to medium gray, occasionally dark gray or light orange-buff.
Firing clouds are common.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors, jar exteriors, and
jar neck interiors are moderately smoothed, heavily slipped.
Polishing is poor to medium, occasionally absent. Jar interiors
are well smoothed, unslipped, and unpolished.
310 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Shapes. Bowls, simple profile, slightly incurved rim, maximum
diameter at or just below rim. Bowl sherds are 2 to 3 times more
numerous than jar sherds.
Ladle handles are solid or hollow tube, with horizontal loop
at end.
Jars, approximately spherical with small neck, vertical or
slightly insloping; occasionally base of neck encircled by low
convex zone. Indented grips occur occasionally on lower body.
Rims: Bowls, direct and rounded, or bevelled inward, or
squared; usually slightly thickened; occasionally bevelled rims
slightly everted.
Jars, direct and rounded, usually slightly thickened.
Decoration. Bowl interiors, decorated in band beginning at or
near rim, leaving central undecorated circular area. Band divided
into panels or filled with continuous, obliquely arranged ele-
ments.
Bowl exteriors, usually undecorated, but occasionally single
line near rim, zigzag line, or large isolated element; rarely con-
tinuous band of decoration.
Jar exteriors, decorated around neck (except for rare plain
necks) usually with interlocking keys or stepped triangles in run-
ning design. Main zone of decoration is on upper body, usually
arranged in large oblique panels or lozenges, with lower limit
approximately at maximum vessel diameter, and sometimes not
inclosed.
Common decorative elements are stepped lines ; solid or hatched
triangles pendent from line or opposed ; interlocking solid or open
keys ; open circle in solid triangle with dot ; groups of four to six
narrow parallel lines. Curvilinear elements, cross hatching, and
naturalistic elements very rare.
Paint. Thick black gkze, sometimes bubbly, occasionally
green. May occasionally be nmtte or subglaze, rarely streaky and
brownish. Brush work varies from sure and bold to sloppy; line
density and width often uneven.
Comparisons. Very similar to Heshotauthla Polychrome but
without any white on bowl exteriors.
Similar to Pinedale Black-on-Red, but paste of Heshotauthla
Black-on-Red is darker, surface not pow^dery or crazed ; also rarely
decorated on exterior of bowls.
APPENDIX II 311
KWAKINA POLYCHROME
See Figures 41, 42 and Plate 20
Distinguishing Characteristics. Bowls are red outside, and slip-
ped white on all or part of inside. Decorated in black glaze paint
on inside, in black glaze and white outside.
Synonyms. "Wallace Polychrome," Colton and Hargrave, 1937,
pp. 114-15; this description applies to some of Kwakina Poly-
chrome, but not all.
"Pinnawa Polychrome," Colton and Hargrave, 1937, pp.
1 15-16; this description applies only in part to Kwakina
Polychrome.
"Adamana Polychrome," Colton and Hargrave, 1937, p. 117;
this describes a minor variation of Kwakina Polychrome. In
general, the three types just mentioned, as defined by Colton and
Hargrave, singled out certain combinations of surface colors and
decorations for type status, without recognizing that a body of
pottery can show some variation in these details and still form a
chronological and spatial unit. With a larger sample of sherds, and
particularly with numerous whole vessels, they would have been
able to observe the basic decorative unity of this pottery, as well
as the numerous minor variations in arrangement of slip and
application of paint.
Glaze in, "... red outside and white within," Hodge, 1924,
p. II.
Illustrations. Hough, 1903, PI. 75, i, 2, from Biddahochee,
Arizona; see also p. 329.
Fewkes, 1904, Fig. 42, b, from Four Mile ruin, Arizona.
Fewkes, 1909, PL IV, ^, 5; V, i, 3, from Heshotauthla, New
Mexico.
Martin and Willis, 1940, PL 120, from several sites in western
New Mexico and eastern Arizona.
Rinaldo, 1959, Fig. 92, sherds from Foote Canyon Pueblo,
Arizona.
Carlson, 1961, Fig. 26, g, bowl from Kinishba, Arizona.
Basis of Present Description. Changes in terminology proposed
by Reed (1955) ; sherds and two restorable bowls from excavations
at Atsinna ruin ; 15 bowls from Hawikuh, in collections of Museum
of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York; and three
bowls from Heshotauthla, in Peabody Museum, Harvard.
Estimated Dates. 1325 to 1400.
312 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Area of Abundance. Vicinity of the Zuni Reservation, east to
Ramah and El Morro, probably south and west nearly to St. Johns
and to Petrified Forest National Monument.
Construction. Coiling, followed by scraping.
Paste. Sometimes uniformly dark gray (36% of sherds from
Atsinna ruin); sometimes (30%) dark to light gray at center with
margins light gray to buff; sometimes (23%) light tan, pinkish
buff, or light gray-brown, with no carbon streak. Rarely (7%)
light pinkish to tan with narrow light gray carbon streak. About
one-third of sherds from Atsinna ruin had carbon streak. Temper
of angular, light-colored particles ; medium texture or occasionally
a mixture of medium and fine texture.
Wall Thickness. Usually about 0.5 cm., rarely more than 0.6
or less than 0.4 cm.
Surface Color. Bowl interiors, slipped creamy white or yellowish
white, occasionally grayish white (from overfiring); occasionally
zone of red on inner rim, 0.2 to 1.5 cm. wide; bowl interior
rarely slipped white only around inner wall, with central area
left red.
Bowl exteriors, slipped red or orange-red, sometimes brownish
or grayish from firing defects ; rarely, a white zone beginning near
rim and extending down 5 to 6 cm., with red below.
Jar exteriors, zone of white around otherwise red body, or
around neck. Jar interiors unslipped light gray to buff.
Fireclouds common on bowl exteriors.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors well smoothed; slip medium to
well polished, with tool marks often visible. Sometimes slip thin
and streaked, or flaked off, pitted, or crackled. At rim either
white or red slip may be applied last, with under color showing
through.
Bowl and jar exteriors moderately to well smoothed; slip
poorly to moderately polished, sometimes streaked, often crackled.
Jar interiors moderately smoothed, unpolished.
Shapes. Bowls common; slightly incurving upper wall, profile
a smooth curve from rim to rim. Jars rare; globular body with
straight neck.
Rims of bowls usually slightly to sharply bevelled inward,
sometimes thickened. Jar rims vertical with rounded lip.
Decoration. Bowl interiors, band 5 to 10 cm. wide decorated,
beginning near rim, leaving center plain ; rarely, design fills entire
interior. Decorative band often divided obliquely into panels or
APPENDIX II 313
filled with elaborately decorated large interlocking triangular
zones. Design elements include groups of four to seven narrow
parallel lines, stepped lines, checkerboard with or without dots in
white squares, pendent triangles, interlocking keys, dots pendent
from line, and negative circles in solid black triangles ; curvilinear
elements and cross-hatching both rare.
Bowl exteriors, decorated zone around rim narrower than on
interior, usually of glaze and narrow white line units repeated 4
times ; or may be continuous band of narrow white line decoration
with slight or no use of glaze. Design elements, stepped lines in
rectangular or triangular panels, or in lozenges or paired triangles ;
occasionally oblique stripe of glaze with white lozenges containing
glaze dots and with white borders ; occasionally continuous white
line forming zigzag, oblique meanders, or repeated interlocking
keys ; occasionally stylized bearpaw in white or in white-bordered
glaze ; rarely, white stripe with glaze spots and glaze border.
Jar exteriors, probably similar to decoration on bowl interiors.
Paint. Glaze, ranges from dense black or bright green to streaky
brown or black, sometimes heavy matte black, often bubbly;
single brush strokes sometimes begin dull and streaky and end
with blob of heavy glaze. White, thick, often flaked or crackled;
great variation in width and density of single lines.
Comparisons. There are close resemblances to Heshotauthla
Polychrome in vessel shapes and in both interior and exterior
decoration of bowls, although of course Kwakina Polychrome has
the added white slip of bowl interiors (and very rarely on the
upper part of bowl exteriors). Carlson (1961, pp. 28-9) has included
both of these types within his Heshota Style, thus distinguishing
them from the antecedent St. Johns Style and the parallel devel-
opment of the Pinedale Style. We are in agreement with this view
of stylistic and historical relationships, although Carlson proposes
dates that differ slightly (and probably unimportantly) from those
suggested here.
Remarks. Kwakina Polychrome marks the introduction of
white slips on red ware in the Cibola region, thus paralleling the
development of Showlow Polychrome nearby to the west. To the
south, the creation of Gila Polychrome marks a similar devel-
opment, resulting in bowls with white-slipped interiors and red
exteriors, although not decorated in glaze paint. There can be
little doubt that these stylistic developments are related and
partly contemporaneous.
314 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
WHITE-ON-RED POTTERY (UNNAMED)
See Figures 40, 41 and Plate 21
A small number of vessels at Hawikuh (and also at Kechipawan
[see Bushnell, 1955, p. 661]) were decorated with white on a red
slip. No name has been proposed for this pottery, pending more
information on its distribution, age, and characteristics. Never-
theless, it deserves brief mention, if only to alert archaeologists in
the Southwest to its presence.
Vessel shapes include bowls (total, 22), jars (8) and ladles (i).
The jar profiles are simple, with globular body and concave neck,
quite similar to the shapes of Pinnawa Glaze-on-white jars. Bowl
profiles are also simple, the upper wall varying from vertical to
inward-sloping, as in Heshotauthla, Kwakina, and Kechipawan
Polychrome. The more angular profiles of Matsaki Polychrome
are absent.
A few of the bowls (total, 6) are smudged and polished on the
interior, a rare occurrence at Hawikuh, though characteristic of
Tularosa White-on-Red, a Mogollon type of the 12th century
(Rinaldo and Bluhm, 1956). We do not regard this Mogollon type
as a direct progenitor of the white-on-red pottery of Hawikuh,
although the smudging of bowl interiors may represent a localized,
persistent, tradition. The Hawikuh vessels are almost certainly
two hundred or so years later in date.
Decoration of the white-on-red pottery at Hawikuh is in a
broad zone around the exterior of bowls (never on the interior) and
in a broad band around the upper body of jars (in only one instance
including the neck). Most of the decoration consists of repeated
simple geometric elements such as parallel lines with or without
ticking, solid stepped triangles, stepped lines, or pendent triangles.
One jar from the ruins of Kechipawan has a stylized bird on a
triangle in two of four panels on its wall, and one sherd from
Hawikuh has a curvilinear interlocking scroll, but otherwise de-
signs are rectilinear. A few of the bowl decorations resemble
closely the white-line portion of the decoration of Heshotauthla
Polychrome, but most of them have wider lines or include solid
white areas. In general these designs resemble those of polychrome
and glaze-on-red vessels of Hawikuh prior to the time of Matsaki
Polychrome.
In estimating the approximate date of this style of decoration,
it is suggestive that the shapes and designs resemble 14th century
APPENDIX II 315
Zuni-area pottery. But the majority of the vessels that are asso-
ciated in burials with other types occur with Matsaki Polychrome,
which probably began late in the 1400's and lasted until late in
the 1700's. In this connection it is possibly significant that at
Table Rock Pueblo (near St. Johns), only about 40 miles south-
west of Hawikuh, white-on-red sherds occur, with designs similar
to those of Four Mile Polychrome and St. Johns Polychrome
(Martin and Rinaldo, i960, p. 208) ; a date of 1350-1400 is ten-
tatively suggested (Martin, Rinaldo, and Longacre, 1961, p. 134).
The two specimens from Table Rock Pueblo that are illustrated
(Martin and Rinaldo, i960. Figs. 94 and 98) suggest strongly the
Hawikuh specimens, and a close relationship between them seems
probable. In his brief study of Kechipawan pottery Bushnell
(1955) suggested, correctly, we think, that white-on-red pottery
belonged near the time of transition from white-slipped, glazed
types to Matsaki Polychrome. Thus all the available evidence at
present, slight though it is, indicates a temporal position some-
time in the early 1400's, probably for only a few decades.
PINNAWA GLAZE-ON-WHITE
See Figure 43 and Plate 20
Distinguishing Characteristics. All-over white slip, decoration in
glaze that varies from dense black or greenish to thin brownish-black.
Synonyms. This name was proposed by Reed in 1955 (p. 186)
instead of "Hawikuh Glaze-on-White" which had been used by
Colton and Hargrave in their 1937 handbook (p. 130; also, Colton,
1955, p. 9, in "White Series'* of "Shiwanna Red Ware"), because
of the probability that "Hawikuh Glaze-on- White" would be
confused with or believed to be associated with Hawikuh Glaze-
on- Red and Hawikuh Polychrome. Both of these types were named
by Mera in 1939, and date from the 17th century; they are thus
not directly related to "Hawikuh Glaze-on-Whit e" and never
occur associated with it. Although the renaming of pottery types
is a source of some confusion and difficulty even to specialists, it
seems preferable to the perpetuation of names that are certain
to cause misinterpretations.
"White Ware," Hough, 1903, pp. 329-30.
"White and Green Ware," Fewkes, 1904, p. 61.
"Black, green, or purplish glaze on white or creamy slip," or
Hawikuh Glaze C, Hodge, 1923, p. 29.
3l6 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
"Black glaze on white/' Hodge, 1920, Pis. Ill and IV.
"Two color glazed ware, white," Spier, 1917, Table I; and also
"glazed ware . . . black-on- white," Spier, 1917, p. 285.
"All over white slip . . . ornamented both inside and outside
with . . . glaze," Hodge, 1924, p. 11. Included in his "Type III."
Illustrations. Hough, 1903, PL 76, upper and lower; PI. 77,
lower; from Biddahochee.
Hodge, 1920, Pis. Ill, IV; from Hawikuh and Kechipawan.
Hodge, 1923, Pis. XXIV, &; XXVII, c; probablyfrom Hawikuh.
Martin and Willis, 1940, PI. 119, Figs. 3-7, from sites in western
New Mexico and eastern Arizona.
Martin and Rinaldo, i960, Figs. 89 (bowl) and no (sherds),
from Table Rock Pueblo, Arizona.
Martin, Rinaldo, and Longacre, 1961, Fig. ^^, bowl found north
of Springer ville, Arizona.
Basis of Present Description. Sherds from the excavation of
Atsinna ruin, and 12 vessels from Hawikuh in the collection of the
Museum of the American Indian.
Estimated Dates. 1350 to 1450.
Area of Abundance. Occurs in relatively small quantities from
the Ramah-El Morro area of New Mexico westward across the
Zuni Reservation, up to the Puerco River of the West and along
the Little Colorado River to Cottonwood Wash. There is evidence
suggesting but not proving a somewhat greater abundance in the
western and northern parts of the area than in the eastern.
Construction. By coiling and then scraping.
Paste. Generally light gray becoming lighter toward the sur-
face; sometimes tan near surface with gray core; sometimes core
pinkish tan throughout. Carbon streak not pronounced, and some-
times absent. Temper is medium to occasionally fine in texture, of
angular fragments, usually gray, sometimes white.
Wall Thickness. Usually between 0.4 and 0.5 cm.
Surface Color. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors
are usually creamy-white, occasionally pure white, yellowish
white, or pale gray. Rarely, as reported by Martin and Rinaldo
(i960, pp. 177 and 206), bowls have the base of the exterior left
red. This is understandable, since Pinnawa Glaze-on-white rep-
resents an increase in the use of the white slip that in Kwakina
Polychrome never covers but part of a bowl. It can be expected
that occasional pieces will occur that mark this change and must
be classified at the transition between the pottery types that have
APPENDIX II 317
been defined. Jar interiors either light pinkish buff or pale to
medium-dark gray. Fire clouds are rare, usually light gray when
present.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors and jar exteriors
are always well smoothed, slipped, and with slight to good polish ;
sometimes smoothing and polishing marks show. Surface often
finely crackled, but may be compact and smooth. Jar interiors
unslipped, smoothed, and unpolished; smoothing marks usually
visible but not conspicuous.
Shapes. Jars predominate, with globular body, low cylindrical
neck, no sharp break in profile between neck and body, and a body
diameter slightly greater than total height. In one vessel from
Hawikuh a single large, vertical loop handle has been added to
such a jar. Ladles occur, with a horizontal loop at the end of a
cylindrical handle. Bowls have incurved rim and no break in the
curve, thus closely resembling Heshotauthla Polychrome and
Kwakina Polychrome bowls. Rims are generally rounded, some-
times bevelled inward or squared.
Decoration. Bowl exteriors usually have isolated elements below
the rim, such as paired stepped triangles, a scroll, or a stepped line
but sometimes have a continuous band of simple decoration such
as a rectilinear meander or horizontal parallel lines. Bowl interiors
have either (a) a broad band just below rim with parallel bordering
lines, containing stepped triangles, oblique panels, interlocking
scrolls, or checkerboard with dots; center of bowl may be un-
decorated or may contain single large complex unit; or (b) sec-
tioned layout with some decorated and some undecorated areas.
Jar exteriors : upper body encircled by broad band which contains
varied or alternating decorative elements; neck encircled by band
of stepped triangles, squiggle hatching, or other repeated motifs,
or sometimes neck has only a few isolated elements. On both jars
and bowls life forms occur, consisting of stylized birds on the
apices of triangles or corners of rectangles. Solid filled triangles
common. Brush work is sometimes careless, with lines varying
in width and line ends running over. Glaze spreads and slightly
blurs the designs, but rarely runs badly. The over-all effect is of
precise, neat execution with minor irregularities.
Paint. Black glaze, usually thick, ranging from heavy and
opaque with high luster to dull and bubbly. May change abruptly
to green or thin out to a streaky matte black, a matte brown, or a
thin and streaky greenish-brown. Glaze paint sometimes pene-
3l8 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
trates adjacent white slip and produces purple-pink blurring [see
Hough, 1903, p. 330; Hodge, 1924, p. 11).
Comparisons. In bowl shape and in decorative elements Pin-
na wa Glaze-on- white shows great similarity to Kwakina Poly-
chrome, and only slightly less similarity to Heshotauthla Poly-
chrome. It has much less resemblance to the non-glazed and the
occasionally-glazed black-on-whites of the 12th and 13th centuries
in the Cibola province. Pinnawa Red-on-white and Kechipawan
Polychrome are hardly distinguishable from Pinnawa Glaze-on-
white except for the use of red paint instead of or in addition to
the glaze paint; however, Kechipawan Polychrome sometimes
includes decorative elements similar to those of Matsaki Poly-
chrome, which suggests that most of it was made at a slightly
later date than Pinnawa Black-on-white.
In the Rio Grande Valley Cieneguilla Glaze-on-Yellow (Kid-
der's Glaze I Yellow) occupies a position in the stylistic devel-
opment of glaze types somewhat comparable to Pinnawa Glaze-
on white in the Zuni area. They are similar in having close rela-
tionships with red-slipped and with red-and- white-slipped types of
slightly earlier date (in the Rio Grande, Agua Fria Glaze-on-red,
an all red-slipped glaze-decorated type ; Arenal Glaze Polychrome,
a rare red type with white or black and white added to bowl
exteriors; and San Clemente Glaze Polychrome, a type with red
exteriors and white interiors for bowls, but also very rare) . Many
decorative motifs of Cieneguilla Glaze-on-yellow, as illustrated by
Kidder (1936, pp. 3 -71) can be duplicated in Pinnawa Glaze-on-
white, but in certain details the two types are dissimilar — the
Zuni type having a larger proportion of jars, more varied design
layouts on bowl interiors, and often fairly elaborately decorated
bowl exteriors.
Pinnawa Glaze-on-white, with Pinnawa Red-on-white and
Kechipawan Polychrome, marks the temporary end of the use of
glaze decoration in the Zuni area. It occurs on sites that were
abandoned when the Zuni population shifted westward 30 or 40
miles to the area of the historic "seven cities," including Hawikuh
and modern Zuni (Woodbury, 1956) . It also occurs on sites farther
westward toward the Hopi area which may have been abandoned
about this time or soon after.
Pinnawa Glaze-on-white is paralleled in its all-over white slip
by Showlow Glaze-on-white, with which it is approximately con-
temporary.
APPENDIX II 319
A small number of sherds and several incomplete vessels from
Atsinna ruin were tentatively recorded in the field as "glaze-on-
cream, " and not included with those identified as Pinnawa Glaze-
on-white. The glaze-on-cream pottery has a somewhat less well
polished surface, is yellowish and never true white, and frequently
has glaze paint that thins out to matte brown; large jars occur
with elaborate geometrical decoration over most of the body. But
with the small sample from Atsinna and the lack of sufficient
distinctness from Pinnawa Glaze-on-white, it seemed unwise to
name it as a separate type. No "glaze-on-cream'' vessels were
found in the Hawikuh collection, and it was therefore decided to
regard "glaze-on-cream" as merely a minor regional and/or tem-
poral variant. Analysis of surface collections suggests but does
not prove that this cream-colored or yellowish variation is found
mainly within the eastern part of the area of distribution of
Pinnawa Glaze-on-white.
PINNAWA RED-ON-WHITE
See Figure 44 and Plate 21
Distinguishing Characteristics. All-over white slip, decoration
in brownish red, with simple geometric elements. Resembles
Kechipawan Polychrome with the glaze decoration omitted.
Synonyms. "White Ware," Hough, 1903, p. 330.
Illustrations. Hough, 1903, PI. 77, Fig. i.
Martin and Rinaldo, i960, Fig. iii (12 bowl and jar sherds).
Basis of Present Description. Sherds from excavation of Atsinna
ruin, and 15 vessels (9 bowls, 6 jars) from Hawikuh in the collection
of the Museum of the American Indian.
Estimated Dates. 1350 to 1450.
Area of Abundance. Nowhere abundant, but found in small
quantities at many sites from El Morro, New Mexico, westward
across the Zuni Reservation to Petrified Forest and northwestward
to Biddahochee on Cottonwood Wash. Also, south to the St. Johns
area, where sherds were found at Table Rock Pueblo (Martin and
Rinaldo, i960, p. 195).
Construction. By coiling, followed by scraping.
Paste. Either light gray or pinkish tan, occasionally darker
gray but Hghter toward exterior surface. Carbon streak only oc-
casionally. Temper is medium to occasionally fine in texture, and
of light-colored angular fragments.
320 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Wall Thickness. Usually between 0.5 and 0.6 cm.
Surface Color. Bowl interiors and exteriors and jar exteriors
creamy white or chalky white. Jar interiors pinkish tan, light
reddish-brown, medium gray, or white. Martin and Rinaldo (i960,
p. 206) report bowl sherds from Table Rock Pueblo that are slipped
red inside, a variant that, like some of the sherds from Atsinna
ruin, suggests that this was a time of ceramic experimentation,
with many different combinations of red and white on vessel
surfaces tried but only a few generally adopted.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors
are always slipped and well smoothed, with slight to good polish.
Surface often finely crackled, and slip sometimes flakes off. Jar
interiors unslipped and smoothed but unpolished. Fire clouds are
extremely rare.
Shapes. Jars have a globular body, a low neck either vertical
or slightly turned out at the rim, very much as in Pinnawa Glaze-
on-white. Bowls have a simple profile with an incurved rim.
Ladles are known only from a few sherds and their form is un-
certain.
Decoration. Design elements and their arrangement are usually
very simple. Bowls are decorated in a single exterior band, and
only very rarely on the interior. Jars have a broad zone of deco-
ration from the lip or from the base of the neck to approximately
the maximum diameter. Some vessels have parallel encircling lines
below bowl rims and at the maximum diameter of jars, with no
other decoration. Bowls and jars also have bands of squares,
stepped lines, ticked lines and simple isolated rectilinear elements.
Decoration is markedly simpler than on Pinnawa Glaze-on-white
and Kechipawan Polychrome.
Paint, Brownish red, usually opaque and uniform, but may be
streaky and thin; sometimes a brownish-black resembling the
paint used on Matsaki Polychrome. The paint sometimes flakes
off. Commonest shades are Munsell 10 R 4/3, 4/4, 4/6, or 3/4.
Comparisons. Shapes are like those of Pinnawa Glaze-on- white
and Kechipawan Polychrome, and the red paint like that of
the latter. But designs are much simpler in Pinnawa Red-on-
white.
Remarks. This type can probably be best regarded as a minor
but fairly consistently produced variation of Kechipawan Poly-
chrome, an example of the widespread interest at this time in
white-shpped pottery.
APPENDIX II 321
KECHIPAWAN POLYCHROME
See Figures 47-50 and Plate 22
Distinguishing Characteristics. White slipped, with decoration
in matte red and black to greenish glaze, the glaze paint well
controlled.
Synonyms. "Arauca Polychrome" (Colton and Hargrave, 1937,
pp. 131-2) is an unacceptable name, according to the rules of the
binomial taxonomic system generally used in the Southwest, as
pointed out by Reed in 1955 (p. 186) and by Colton in the same
year (p. 9). "Arauca" is derived from the generic name of a tree
now petrified in Petrified Forest National Park, and the rules
require selection of a geographical name to couple with the terms
for surface color or treatment.
"Pinnawa Glaze-Polychrome" was suggested in 1955 by Reed
(p. 187) to take the place of "Arauca Polychrome," but unfor-
tunately this name had already been used by Colton and Hargrave
(1937, pp. 115-16) for a kind of pottery that they define quite
differently from "Arauca Polychrome." Only further confusion
can result from re-use of an already pubhshed name, and therefore
Kechipawan Polychrome is proposed for this type. The change
has been adopted already by Martin and Rinaldo (i960, p. 195) in
a report on their 1958 work in the St. Johns area. Of the many
variant spellings of Kechipawan we have used the one Hodge chose
to use in his "History of Hawikuh" (1937; see pp. 131-2 for
synonyms and variant spellings) .
"Black or green glaze on white or cream, with non-glaze colors
introduced," or Glaze D; Hodge, 1923, p. 29. Hodge adds, "This
was the first step toward a pure mat polychrome."
"Black, green, or maroon glaze with mat red on white," or
Type IV, Hodge, 1924, pp. 11-12.
Illustrations. Martin and Willis, 1940, PL 119, Figs, i and 2.
Rinaldo, 1959, Fig. 93. Identified in the caption and text as
Pinnawa Polychrome (following Reed's 1955 terminology); but
obviously not this type as defined, and possibly variants of Hes-
hotauthla and Kwakina Polychromes.
Martin and Rinaldo, i960. Fig. 112 ; 12 sherds from Table Rock
Pueblo, near St. Johns.
Basis of Present Description. Sherds from Atsinna ruin at
El Morro National Monument. Vessels from Hawikuh in the Mu-
seum of the American Indian collection (35 bowls, 21 jars).
322 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Estimated Dates. Between 1375 and 1475.
Area of Abundance. From the El Morro and Ramah area of
western New Mexico across the Zuni Reservation to the Petrified
Forest and Leroux Wash.
Construction. By coihng and then scraping.
Paste. Generally medium to light gray, becoming lighter to-
ward surface ; sometimes a gray core becoming tan toward surface;
sometimes pinkish-tan throughout. Carbon streak often present.
Temper is of medium, or occasionally fine texture; light colored
angular fragments, occasionally with larger rounded particles also.
Wall Thickness. Usually 0.3 to 0.6 cm., occasionally 0.7 cm.
Surface Color. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors,
usually clear white or very pale gray; somxCtimes creamy- white,
rarely yellowish- white or pale buff. Jar interiors light pinkish buff.
Surface color is generally close to the white slips of Pinnawa Glaze-
on-white, Pinnawa Red-on-white, and Kwakina Polychrome, but
in a few^ vessels resembles the lighter shades of Matsaki Polychrome.
Martin and Rinaldo (i960, p. 206) report that the sherds of
Kechipawan Polychrome that they found at Table Rock Pueblo
near St. Johns showed the low^er part of bowl exteriors to be red
instead of white. Although at Hawikuh this is not typical, it can
probably be considered a minor variation of undetermined spatial
and temporal significance, reflecting the considerable experimen-
tation going on in the Southwest in the use of white slips instead
of the previous red slips.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors,
always slipped, and medium or well smoothed; usually well
polished, with polishing marks often slightly visible. Slip is oc-
casionally crackled, and occasionally flakes off so that pinkish
color of paste shows through. Jar interiors are smoothed but not
slipped or polished. Fire clouds are very rare.
Shapes. Bowls usually with slightly incurved rim and an un-
broken curve from lip to lip ; but two of the Hawikuh bowls have
their maximum diameter very high, the lower wall flattened to
make a somewhat pointed-rounded base, and in one instance a
narrow everted rim above the sharply incurved upper wall. These
two vessels resemble, in shape, Matsaki Polychrome, and represent
a departure from the bowl shape characteristic at Hawikuh from
the time of Heshotauthla Polychrome to nearly the end of the
1400's.
Jars have a globular bod}^ and a short neck, either cylindrical
APPENDIX II 323
or out curving. Height averages 72% of diameter, and is rarely less
than 68% or more than 77%. As with the bowls, the shape is
shared with the other red- and white-slipped types of the 1300's
and 1400's. Uncommon shapes include a cylindrical effigy jar
with applique and low-relief modelling of face and arms only; a
fragmentary stirrup-handled jar; and a "doughnut" jar, a circular
horizontal tube with two large "mouths" connected by a short
strap handle. No ladles were noted.
Lips of both bowls and jars are usually rounded or slightly
bevelled inward, and occasionally either slightly everted or thick-
ened with an inward bevel.
Decoration. Bowl interior has main design, in broad band below
rim, all over, or occasionally centered in bottom ; abundant use of
geometric elements, usually solid, occasionally hatched or checker-
board ; occasional use of life forms, including stylized birds, isolated
feathers, animals, or, rarety, crude human figures. Bowl exterior
usually has simple encircling decoration without bordering lines,
consisting of oblique meander or connected oblique lines; oc-
casional isolated, repeated exterior elements, or line with pendent
triangles or keys ; usually both red and glaze used on bowl exterior,
rarely glaze only. On jar exteriors the upper body, sometimes
including lower part of neck, is encircled by broad band of deco-
ration, similar to band layout on bowl interiors. Red paint may
fill solids, form subsidiary complete elements, or be used for single
or grouped narrow parallel lines, but is usually used less exten-
sively than is glaze. On both bowls and jars the designs are planned
and executed with great skill and elegance.
Paint. Matte red, usually slightly pinkish or purplish, rarely
brownish; opaque but sometimes wears off or flakes off; nearly
always Munsell 10 R 4/4, occasionally 4/3 or 4/6. Glaze ranges from
dense black to bright green; usually evenh^ applied with little
running and only occasional spreading.
Comparisons. Similar in many ways to Pinnawa Glaze-on-
white and to Pinnawa Red-on-white, with nearly the same surface
finish, paints, and vessel shapes, and with resemblances in some
decorative treatments. Designs on Kechipawan Polychrome are
more complex than on Heshotauthla Polychrome, but employ
many of the same elements; in addition, elements that appear
commonly on Matsaki Polychrome occasionally appear on Kechi-
pawan Potychrome, suggesting at least a brief period of time
during which both were being made.
324 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Hawikuh Polychrome, which also uses glaze and red on a white
slip, is only superficially similar to Kechipawan Polychrome, as
the surface of Hawikuh Polychrome is less well finished, the white
slip is yellowish or buff, the lower exterior of both bowls and jars
is commonly red, the glaze is much more crudely applied (lines of
uneven width, frequent running), the red paint is more purplish,
and the decoration is quite different in both layout and motifs.
Remarks. This marks the end of a series of Zuni glaze-deco-
rated pottery types that began with Heshotauthla Polychrome
and within two centuries or less changed from all-red slips through
part-red and part-white slips to all-white slips, a change that was
taking place in other pottery types in the Southwest at about the
same time. Following Kechipawan Polychrome, glaze was aban-
doned by the Zuni (although later used again in Hawikuh Poly-
chrome) , and shapes, surface colors, decorative layouts and design
elements all changed rather abruptly with the emergence of
Matsaki Polychrome as the principal decorated pottery type.
Among the vessels excavated at Hawikuh, however, are several
that are clearly transitional from Kechipawan Polychrome to
Matsaki Polychrome, having the shapes and paints of the earlier
type and the buff slip and some of the decorative elements, such as
pendent feathers, of Matsaki Polychrome. It would be surprising,
of course, if such transitional vessels did not exist, since the
pottery makers undoubtedly included not only individuals who
clung to the "old" style or quickly adopted the "new" but also
some who experimented and combined elements from more than
one source. What is perhaps more surprising is that of 82 vessels
from Hawikuh that could be classified as Kechipawan Polychrome,
only six departed sufficiently from the norm to be regarded as
"transitional" or "atypical."
RED-ON-BUFF POTTERY (UNNAMED)
See Figure 44 and Plate 21
At the 31st International Congress of Americanists, in Sao
Paulo, Bushnell reported briefly on the collection of pottery from
Kechipawan in the Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology
and Ethnology. The site is contemporary with Hawikuh and there-
fore BushneU's observations are of importance in evaluating the
Hawikuh specimens. He describes and illustrates (Bushnell, 1955,
pp. 660-1, Figs. I, 2 [Fig. I can also be seen in Bushnell and Digby,
APPENDIX II 325
1955, PL 7B]) a group of vessels decorated in red paint on a buff
slip, of which he says, "This is a ware to which I shall not venture
to give a fuller name, since it is difficult to say where the [Pin-
nawa] Red-on-White ends and this begins and some vessels might
be regarded as belonging to either, yet the fully developed buff
or orange slip on some examples is a striking feature/' Such
vessels occur also at Hawikuh, but apparently not quite so fre-
quently, only six being recorded in the collections examined in the
Heye Foundation.
Most of the vessels appear to be only slightly different from
Pinnawa Red-on-white ; they may mark the beginning of the use
of a buff, yellowish, or light orange-brown slip, which soon after
was stabilized in Matsaki Polychrome and Matsaki Brown-on-
buff. Bowls of red-on-buff are of the same shape as Pinnawa Red-
on- white, and many of the jars are also. A few jars have a different
profile, the body not globular but instead with maximum diameter
higher and a distinct shoulder above which the body is flattened ;
the decoration in such jars is on this upper section of the body.
Decoration consists of simple geometric elements arranged in
a continuous band, either repeating or in alternation. The vessels
from Hawikuh provide too small a sample to judge the designs
well, but photographs of the Kechipawan specimens in Cambridge
were generously sent us by Bushnell, and indicate that decoration
resembles Pinnawa Red-on- white in its simplicity and includes
almost none of the life forms and asymmetry of Matsaki Poly-
chrome. Bowls lack interior decoration.
If our surmise is correct, and red-on-buff pottery marks a
changing of white-slipped to buff-slipped vessels occuring when
Pinnawa Red-on- white was still being made and could provide
the shapes and decorative schemes, then red-on-buff pottery prob-
ably dates from about the middle of the 15th century. It may be,
as Bushnell suggests, the result of a wave of Hopi influence or of
imitation of imported Hopi pottery just prior to the more pervasive
influence that resulted in the Zunis giving up their white slips and
glaze paints and producing the vessels that we call Matsaki Poly-
chrome.
MATSAKI POLYCHROME
See Figures 51-72 and Plates 23, 24, 27
Distinguishing characteristics. A somewhat rough or crazed
surface, crumbly paste, slipped with buff (sometimes orange.
326 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
cream, or yellow-brown), and decorated in complex geometric and
feather designs, with dark brown or black and reddish-brown
paint. Shapes and decoration resemble Sikyatki Polychrome, but
surface finish and brush work are much poorer and paste is
entirely different.
Synonyms. "Three color: deep yellow ground with red pattern
edged in brown," Kroeber, 1916, p. 23.
Type "E. Polychrome," Hodge, 1923, p. 29.
Type "VI," Hodge, 1924, p. 12. Until further analysis and
subdivision Matsaki Polychrome will be considered to include
Hodge's Type VH also; he says, "There is little difference between
this type and the last, which may be distinguished as late and
early polychrome respectively." Field notes from the excavation
of Hawikuh do not furnish a stratigraphic basis for separating
these types; Reed (1955, p. 188) proposes the name "Concepcion
Polychrome" for the later type.
"Matte-painted polychrome ware ... an attempt to copy Hopi
styles . . . but with a buff slip," Mera, 1939, p. 19.
"Hawikuh Polychrome," used by Colton in unpublished labels
and check list, as reported by Reed (1955, p. 187).
"Pseudo-Hopi," Reed, 1955, p. 188.
Illustrations. Bushnell, 1955, Fig. 3 (also shown in Bushnell and
Digby, 1955, PL 8A). > •
In "Circular Kivas near Hawikuh, New Mexico" Hodge il-*
lustrates four vessels as "early polychrome" (Pis. XXVIII, a, h,
and XXIX, h, c), but of these only PI. XXIX, b actually appears
to be Matsaki Polychrome and this picture shows too little of
the decoration to permit its identification in the Museum col-
lections.
Basis of Present Description. Sherds from surface collections
made at Hawikuh and Kechipawan in 1953, and the whole vessels
in the Museum of the American Indian, from Hawikuh (311 bowls,
190 jars, and 10 vessels of other shapes).
Estimated Dates. From about 1475 to late in the i6oo's.
Area of Abundance. The six historic Zuni towns, all of which
are within about 12 miles of modern Zuni.
Construction. By coiling and then scraping.
Paste. Ranges in color from light tan (the predominant color)
through orange and light gray to occasional dark gray where
surface is heavily fire clouded. A carbon streak is common, either
at center of wall or extending to exterior surface of bowl and to
APPENDIX II 327
interior surface of jar. Temper is of medium texture, often with
some coarse particles also and occasionally with some fine par-
ticles. The temper is of small angular particles, light gray except
when darkened in reduced-fired areas, and there are occasional
rounded particles of quartz.
Wall Thickness. Averages 0.6 cm., frequently ranging from
0.5 to 0.7 in a single sherd or small area of vessel; very rarely less
than 0.4 or more than 0.9 cm.
Surface Color. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors
slipped orange-buff {Munsell 7.5 YR 7/6 and 6/6), fairly uniformly
on any single vessel except for fire clouding, but with slips of some
vessels cream (10 YR 8/1, 8/2, and 8/3) and of many others orange-
tan (7.5 YR 6/4), orange (5YR 7/8 and 6/8), and brown (7.5 YR
5/4 and 4/4). Jar interiors buff, orange, or light gray. It is in-
teresting (and may be significant) in view of the range of slip
colors in this type, that a careful study of modern Zuni color
terminology (that is, those colors named by informants, as distinct
from those that they could discriminate) showed that "... mono-
lingual Zunis do not distinguish at all between orange and yellow^
The entire region is occupied by a single category" (Lenneberg
and Roberts, 1956, p. 31). This suggests that as far as the intentions
of the Zuni pottery makers were concerned, the variation we note
was not only unimportant but disregarded, and vessels of all these
colors were "the same." This does not lessen the value of these
differences to us, if they prove to have chronological correlates or
if they prove to be associated with particular shapes or designs,
but it lessens the possibility of such relationships.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors
moderately smoothed, slipped, and poorly polished; tool marks
often visible, with st nations that suggest use of a stick rather than
a stone. Surface is often crazed, and temper particles at surface
often cause pitting. Exterior bases of vessels have noticeably
poorer finish. Jar interiors are finished like exteriors on the easily
accessible portions of necks; the rest of interiors are poorly
smoothed, unslipped, unpolished. Fire clouds are common.
Shapes. Bowls: Three shapes are distinguishable, as well as a
few intermediate or deviant specimens.
(i) A simple curved profile, with incurved rim, and maximum
diameter near or slightly above half-height ; this shape is common
in Pinedale, Four Mile, Heshotauthla, and Kechipawan Poly-
chromes.
328 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
(2) An incurved upper wall with narrow, sharply everted rim,
and with slightly flattened or occasionally concave lower wall,
resulting in a conical-rounded base; this shape is common in
Hawikuh Glaze-on-red and Polychrome.
(3) A flat or near-flat flaring rim, maximum diameter at lip,
upper wall concave and lower wall convex; shallower bowls of
this shape suggest the European "soup plate." This is the
shape of the 19th and 20th century "stew bowl" of the Hopi,
also.
Of the Hawikuh bowls about | are of the second shape, | of
the first, and yV of the third.
Jars: Outnumbered by bowls about 3 to 2 in Hawikuh col-
lection ; 3 distinguishable shapes occur, although a few vessels are
intermediate in shape :
(i) Globular body, with neck cylindrical and sloping slightly
inward, or neck cylindrical with narrow outcurved lip, or neck
short and broadly flaring; this shape common in Gila and Tonto
Polychrome, and in Pinnawa Glaze-on- white and Kechipawan
Polychrome.
(2) Broad, low body, with upper body and neck merged and
sloping inward, and with a clearly defined but not angled shoulder;
this shape common in Sikyatki Polychrome.
(3) Broad, low body, with upper body and neck merged and
sloping inward but usually topped with sharply everted rim;
lower body flattened or sometimes concave in profile, pro-
ducing restricted base and an effect of a vertically-compressed
shoulder; this shape common in Hawikuh Glaze-on-red and
Polychrome.
Of the Hawikuh jars nearly J are of the second shape, i- of
the first, and ^ of the third.
Rare shapes consist of:
(i) An asymmetric "shoe" jar, with an open-ended vertical
tube built into the projecting portion. Decoration consists of two
small panels of stepped triangle and feather elements, one on the
front, one on the back.
(2) A crude pitcher with a vertical handle and no spout ; it has
a panel of decoration covering | of the body.
(3) A fragmentary jar, possibly having a stirrup spout.
(4) A canteen, or jar with a pair of handles and very small
orifice. Decoration encircles the body.
(5) A small bird effigy jar.
APPENDIX II 329
(6) Two cups copied from European models — vertical loop
handle, flattened bottom, flaring wall. Both are decorated around
the exterior rim.
(7) Three ladles with flattened, solid handles and broad, shal-
low bowl decorated on the interior.
Decoration. Bowls are decorated on interior, sometimes with a
band of panels carrying geometric and/or stylized feather motifs,
but more often with the entire interior occupied by a large, com-
plex design, sometimes asymmetric, and often including bird
motifs ; bowl exteriors are plain or carry only a simple decoration,
such as a horizontal line ending in stylized tassels, or groups of
two, three, or four parallel short lines, horizontal or oblique. Jars
are decorated around shoulder, sometimes to rim or nearly to
rim, with complicated geometric and feather elements, usually
arranged in one or two encircling bands.
Paint. Black, used for borders of red areas and for broad
stripes and some soHd elements, varies from dense brownish-black
to streaky or very faded chocolate brown. Red, usually brownish,
sometimes light and streaky, sometimes dark and hardly to be
distinguished from brownish-black. White, occasionally used spar-
ingly to fill small areas of design, thin, unevenly applied, with slip-
color showing through. Brush work of all paints is sometimes neat
but usually careless; both black and red are occasionally applied
in dry-brush, or stippled technique. No engraving has been noted.
Comparisons. The common assumption that this pottery is an
attempt to copy Sikyatki Polychrome, which the Zuni villages
were acquiring from the Hopi country, is supported by the close
similarity in shape and decoration of many of the vessels. But
Matsaki Polychrome is easily distinguished by its crazed, rougher
surface, and its softer and coarser paste. Slip color of Matsaki Poly-
chrome rarely approaches the clear yellow of Hopi pottery and shows
far wider and more frequent variation toward brown and orange.
Remarks. This is the predominant pottery, with Matsaki
Brown-on-buff, of the pre-contact period of the historic Zuni
towns, and it continued in abundant use during the 17th century,
when missions were established at some of the towns.
At Hawikuh and Kechipawan 86 out of the 117 vessels showing
"killing" are Matsaki Polychrome, particularly bowls of Shape i
and jars of Shape i. These killed vessels usually contained cre-
mations according to the field notes, the bowls often being inverted
as covers over the necks of the jars.
330 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
"Concepcion Polychrome," suggested by Reed as a name for
the 17th century continuation of Matsaki Polychrome, has had
no precise distinguishing characteristics proposed for it, and has
not been separated from Matsaki Polychrome in the preceding
description. A possibility that Concepcion Polychrome is less well
shaped, finished, and decorated still awaits proof; there is also a
possibility that bowls of Shape 3 and jars of Shape 3 may prove
to be later in time, and can be designated as Concepcion Poly-
chrome. Hodge suggested in 1923 (p. 29) that "the range of
decorative designs indicates two periods, one merging into the
other, the first prehistoric, the second prehistoric but extending
into the historic period." Until some chronological basis for
separating Matsaki from Concepcion Polychrome is available, a
purely impressionistic separation does not seem profitable to
attempt.
A few vessels from Hawikuh were classified as variants of
Matsaki Polychrome, none numerous enough or with certain
enough chronological position to deserve formal definition as
"varieties." Eleven of these variants had a white, pale gray, or
cream slip, similar to that of Pinnawa Glaze-on-white, Pinnawa
Red-on-white, and Kechipawan Polychrome, but had typical
Matsaki Polychrome decoration in terms of both paint and designs.
Five others had the slip and paint colors of Matsaki Polychrome
but designs that were very similar to Pinnawa Glaze-on-white or
Kechipawan Polychrome. Both groups included vessel shapes of
both the Matsaki and the Pinnawa-Kechipawan types. It seems
clear that these pieces mark the transition from one style of
pottery decoration to another. One bowl with Matsaki Polychrome
decoration had a red-slipped interior, as in Kwakina Polychrome.
The transition to Hawikuh Polychrome is suggested by the use of
glaze paint on two vessels that in slip and design elements were
classifiable as Matsaki Polychrome; it is remarkable that when
glaze paint was re-introduced or revived no more than two vessels
decorated in Matsaki-style occur in our sample.
MATSAKI BROWN-ON-BUFF
See Figure y^
In most details these vessels resemble Matsaki Polychrome,
being distinguished by a lack of red paint in the decoration. This
is the type that H. S. Colton, in unpublished notes, has referred
APPENDIX II 331
to tentatively as "Hawikuh Brown-on-buff." In the collections
from Hodge's excavations at Hawikuh, Matsaki Brown-on-buff
included 100 bowls, ten jars, five cups apparently copied from
European models, two bowls each with small tubular spout just
below the rim, four pitchers (of which one had a ring base — prob-
ably a trait of European or Mexican origin), one plate (a shape of
almost certain European source), one duck-shaped vessel, one shoe
pot with a vertical tubular insertion, one crude two-handled jar
probably copied from a European model, one rectangular bowl,
one oval bowl, one small crude ring-based bowl, and three minia-
ture vessels (a bowl, a jar, and a three-lobed jar). This relatively
large number of atypical shapes may reflect a tendency to limit
the decoration on experimental pieces, or may indicate that Mat-
saki Brown-on-buff was relatively more common in the post-con-
tact period when vessels copied from European shapes began to be
made. It should be mentioned in passing that the collection from
Hawikuh includes a considerable number of plain buff vessels in
European shapes, which, because of their lack of decoration, are
not included in this account. We have no explanation for the
rarity of Matsaki Brown-on-buff jars.
Besides the lack of red paint in the decoration, Matsaki Brown-
on-buff vessels often have somewhat simpler designs than occur
on Matsaki Potychrome. However, polychrome vessels also may
have very simple decoration.
HAWIKUH POLYCHROME
See Figures 74-79 and Plates 25, 26
Distinguishing Characteristics. Bowls and jars both slipped
partly brownish-red and partly white or pale buff, with decoration
in runny, irregular glaze and (on white areas) in matte red.
Synonyms. "Type VIII," "glaze, especially green . . ., applied
in conjunction with . . . mat colors," Hodge, 1924, p. 13.
"F. Recent glaze," Hodge, 1923, p. 29.
"Hawikuh Recent Glaze," Kidder, 1936, pp. 373-4.
"Hawikuh Glaze-Polychrome," Reed, 1955, pp. 190-1.
Reed points out (1955, pp. 187-8) that the term "Hawikuh
Polychrome" was at one time suggested by H. S. Colton, in an
unpublished check-list of Southwestern pottery types, for the type
now termed Matsaki Polychrome; likewise Colton suggested the
name "Matsaki Glaze-Polychrome" for the type here termed
332 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
Hawikuh Polychrome ; however, Mera's 1939 naming of the type
has priority, and Colton's suggested names have never been
proposed in print.
Previous Descriptions. Mera (1939, pp. 19-20) gives a brief,
general description of the type.
Illustrations. Hodge, 1920, Pis. V, VI, two bowls, from Hawikuh
and Kechipawan.
Hodge, 1923, PL XXIX, a, one bowl from Hawikuh.
Mera, 1939, Pis. 47, 49, 52, 53, four vessels purchased at Acoma.
Kidder, 1936, Fig. 295, three sherds from a single vessel, from
Pecos.
Bushnell, 1955, Fig. 4 (also shown in Bushnell and Digby, 1955,
PI. 8B), one jar from Kechipawan.
Basis of Present Description. Surface collections from Hawikuh
and Kechipawan made in 1953 and 1954, Mera's 1939 description
and illustrations, and vessels from Hawikuh in Museum of the
American Indian (99 bowls, 57 jars, and 7 vessels of other shapes).
Estimated Dates. 1630-1680 or later. Hawikuh was abandoned
about 1680 and we have little evidence either for or against a
continuation of Hawikuh Polychrome after this date. One clue is
provided by the absence of Hawikuh Polychrome at the site of
Kolliwa (Site 52, in Spier, 1917, p. 233; see also Kroeber, 1916,
pp. 24-8); this is a post-conquest refuge site, occupied briefly
during the i6oo's or 1700's, or both, most probably in the 1670 to
1700 period. Our small sherd collection from Kolliwa included
Ashiwi Polychrome (about 27% of the total) and no sherds of
Hawikuh Polychrome or earlier Zuni types. This suggests a
relatively speedy replacement of Hawikuh Polychrome by the non-
glaze decoration (Ashiwi Polychrome) that led directly to modern
Zuni pottery.
Area of Abundance. The six historic Zuni towns, all within a
12-mile radius of modern Zuni.
Construction. By coiling, followed by scraping.
Paste. Generally gray, sometimes uniformly dark, sometimes
becoming lighter and buff near surface ; occasionally buff through-
out. A carbon streak is common. Temper is of medium texture,
occasionally fine, and is of small light colored angular fragments.
Wall Thickness. Usually from 0.4 to 0.7 cm., but with great
variation even in a single sherd, as well as from vessel to vessel.
Surface Color. Bowls have five characteristic arrangements of
red and/or white on their surfaces :
APPENDIX II 333
1. Slipped red on interior, and on exterior below a narrow
white zone encircling the rim (58% of Hawikuh vessels).
2. Slipped white only on inner rim, when rim is broadly flaring
instead of incurving (16%).
3. Slipped red on exterior, with or without a white rim band,
but interior slipped entirely white (13%).
4. Slipped white on all of interior and exterior (4%).
5. Slipped red on exterior, and interior bisected with half
slipped red, half slipped white (7%).
Jars usually (83% of Hawikuh vessels) have the exterior
slipped red on the base and white on the upper body from the lip
to near or just below the maximum diameter. Occasionally (15%)
the upper body is bisected vertically, half slipped red and half
white, with the base red. Interiors are unslipped, pinkish buff,
occasionally gray; rarely slipped red. Interiors usually have a
narrow (i to 4 cm.) irregular zone of red at the rim.
The white slip is creamy-white to yellowish-buff, sometimes
very similar to lighter shades of Matsaki Polychrome.
The red slip is reddish-brown, often purplish, sometimes very
dark on exterior base; Munsell identifications range through 10 R
3/2, 4/2, 4/3, 4/4, 4/6, and 5/4.
Surface Finish. Bowl interiors and exteriors, and jar exteriors
smoothed; slip sometimes moderately polished, often crackled,
flaked, or pitted. Jar interiors poorly to moderately smoothed,
unpolished. Fire clouds are absent.
Shapes. Bowls have an incurved rim, usually with narrow out-
turned lip, and have a conical body either (a) nearly straight to
slightly concave in profile, with maximum diameter very high, thus
resembling the lower part of ajar; or (b) slightly convex in profile.
Jars nearly always have a slightly concave neck with narrow
out- turned lip, and the profile of the lower body is slightly concave ;
no sharply defined break occurs in profile at shoulder; base is small
and rounded, rarely flattened.
Bowl rims thickened, usually with sharply everted lip, or less
often a slight out-curve. Jar rims, everted lip more pronounced
than on bowls.
Decoration. In glaze on the red of some bowl interiors and in
glaze and red on the white areas of both bowls and jars, with glaze
extensions onto adjacent red areas. Bowl and jar exteriors have
one or two bands of decoration, usually divided into panels, and
filled with complex combinations of stylized feathers, keys, pen-
334 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
dent triangles, and sometimes other motifs. On bowl interiors and
rarely on lower body of jar exteriors simple isolated crosses, lines,
dots, or stylized dragonfiies occur in glaze. Bowl interiors more
often have large complex central decorations, sometimes including
crude animal, plant, or insect forms. A few bowl interiors have
large curvilinear white areas, glaze-bordered, with little or no
additional detail. Most decoration is drawn in glaze, with red paint
commonly used to fill some of elements; sometimes red is used
alone for part of a design.
Paint. Glaze is black to dark green, usually bubbly ; generally
spreads unevenly, resulting in ragged edges and variable line
width; occasionally. runs so as to partly obliterate design. Red
paint is matte, pinkish or purplish, usually flaked or crackled with
slip showing through slightly ; generally Munsell 10R4/3, 4/4, 5/3, or
5/4, that is, not quite as dark as slip color, and a little more uniform.
Comparison. In contrast to Kechipawan Polychrome, Hawikuh
Polychrome has large areas of red slip, has a rougher surface,
usually has a yellower tinge to the white slip, and has a less precise
application of its glaze decoration. Hawikuh Polychrome designs
resemble quite closely those of Matsaki Polychrome and its white
slip sometimes approaches the lighter shades of Matsaki Poly-
chrome, but the decoration is more carelessly drawn and uses glaze
instead of brownish-black. Hawikuh Polychrome is distinctly
different in detail from contemporary Rio Grande glazed pottery.
Remarks. This revival of glaze decoration by the Zuni probably
results from Rio Grande influence, since it shows no clear con-
tinuity with the earlier glaze-on-white pottery of the Zuni area,
and is separated from it by a period of matte paint decorated buff
ware. The revival was relatively brief, ending during or imme-
diately after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Following this, a non-
glaze pottery known as Ashiwi Polychrome (Mera, 1939) was made
by the Zunis, continuing some of the decorative elements of
Hawikuh Polychrome and Matsaki Polychrome, but using vessel
shapes probably of Rio Grande derivation.
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Gates Expedition of 1901. Report of the United States National
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Kidder, A. V.
1936. The Glaze-paint, Culinary, and Other Wares. In "The Pottery of
Pecos," Vol. 2, pp. 1-388. Papers of the Southwestern Expedition,
336 THE EXCAVATION OF HAWIKUH
No. 7, Phillips Academy, Andover. Yale University Press, New
Haven.
Kroeber, A. L.
1916. Zuiii Potsherds. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum
of Natural History, Vol. 18, Pt. i, pp. 1-37. New York.
Lenneberg, Eric H. and John M. Roberts
1956. The Language of Experience. A Study in Methodology. Inter-
national Journal of American Linguistics, Memoir 13, Indiana
University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics. Baltimore.
Martin, Paul S. and John B. Rinaldo
i960. Table Rock Pueblo. Fieldiana: Anthropology, Vol. 51, No. 2.
Chicago.
Martin, Paul S., John B. Rinaldo, and William A. Longacre
1 961. Mineral Creek Site and Hooper Ranch Pueblo, Eastern Arizona.
Fieldiana: Anthropology, Vol. 52. Chicago.
Martin, Paul S. and Elizabeth S. Willis
1940. Anasazi Painted Pottery in Field Museum of Natural Histor>^
Field Museum of Natural History, Anthropology Memoirs, Vol. 5,
Chicago.
Martin, Paul S. and others
1962. Chapters in the Prehistory of Eastern Arizona, I. Fieldiana:
Anthropology, Vol. 53. Chicago.
Mera, H. P.
1939- Style Trends of Pueblo Pottery in the Rio Grande and Little
Colorado Cultural Area from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centu-
ry. Memoirs of the Laboratory of Anthropology, Vol. 3. Santa Fe.
Rinaldo, John B.
1958. Foote Canyon Pueblo. Fieldiana: Anthropology, Vol. 49, No. 2.
Chicago.
Rinaldo, John B. and Elaine A. Bluhm
1956. Late Mogollon Pottery Types of the Reserve Area, Fieldiana:
Anthropology, Vol. 36, No. 7, pp. 149-187. Chicago.
Reed, Erik K.
1955. Painted Pottery and Zuni Prehistory. Southwestern Journal of
Anthropology, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 178-193. Albuquerque.
Shepard, Anna O.
1936. The Technology of Pecos Pottery. In "The Pottery of Pecos,"
Vol. 2, pp. 389-587. Papers of the Southwestern Expedition, No. 7,
Phillips Academy, Andover. Yale University Press, New Haven.
Spier, Leslie
191 7. An Outline for a Chronology of Zuni Ruins. Anthropological
Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 18, Pt. 3,
pp. 207-331. New York.
Stubbs, Stanley A. and W. S. Stal lings, Jr.
1953. The Excavation of Pindi Pueblo, New Mexico. Monographs of
the School of American Research and the Laboratory of Anthropology,
No. 18. Santa Fe.
Woodbury, Richard B.
1956. The Antecedents of Zuni Culture. Transactions of the New York
Academy of Sciences, Ser. II, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 557-563. New York.
TEXT FIGURES
GROUND PLAN
RUINS OF HAWIKUH
NEW MEXICO
L SHELLBACH, 1938 — DRAFTSMEN — J Q RESSLER, 1963
0 5 10 20 30 50 100
SCALE IN FEET
CONTOUR INTERVAL 5 FEET
35 30 25
the Friary, and the upper levels of all rooms excavated in the Pueblo,
red at intervals of 5 feet above an assumed datum immediately South-
•ed A through F, as originally designated by Hodge.
GROUND PLAN
RUINS OF HAWIKUH
NEW MEXICO
Figure i
lire site of Hawikuh, showing the Franciscan Church, the Friary, and the upper levels of all rooms excavated in the Pueblo,
indicate the surface at the time of excavation, measured at intervals of 5 feet above an assumed datum immediately South-
east of the Friary. The "House Groups" are lettered A through F, as originally designated by Hodge.
f^ rt C -^
o 73 C (U
O
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liis
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25 50 75
Profile A-B across
Figure I, showing ver
Spanish artifacts, and i
Figure 2
intersecting House Groups B and C, as indicated in
absence of fioor features,
>3
A
?t'
Shape
Dimcusioi
s [Inches)
Position
Orientation
Remarks
3
1
S"
o
3-
1
9
"1
f
1
9
1?
1?
1
136
X
X
18
8
4.5
?
?
X
X
137
X
X
X
X
17
20
8
10
6
?
E
Slight
Flush
X
X
X
X
140
X
X
9
6
3.5
?
Slight
X
X
Originally on exterior?
141
X
X
X
Square
15
18
13
10
3
4
S
S
?
?
X
X
X
X
144
x(?)
X
16
10
?
7
?
X
X
__^^
2 slabs missing
145
149
x(?)
X
X
X
20
22
21
10
11
?
?
?
2.5
X
X
[
Slab screen between
fireplace and wall : 2 P. S.
150
X
12
5.5
E
Flush
X
X
~~~~
1 slab .5" thick; 1 side metate
2P.S.
,
.
. -
—
^
-
, .
.
,
. ,
- _ — .
__ _
.
151
X
X
22
12
6.5
E
Slight
X
X
153
X
X
23
12
-?
?
?
X
X
155
x(?)
Pentag.
?
?
2
S
?
X
Unusually shallow
157
X
Square
9
7
7
E
Flush
X
X
Sides made of 4 manos
162
X
X
21
14
2
S
1 slab 5
X
X
Unusually shallow
169
X
c:^
21
13
19
?
S
?
X
X
Ends masonry; masonry screen
between F. P. and wall
186
19
9
s
F
?
.
1 side 2.5" others .5 to 1" thick
197
X
X
19
16
10
8S
?
2.5
6
?
?
X
X -
1
Partly adobe; 1 side metate ; 2 P. E
1
slabs against wall
422
X
X
25
S
1 slab 6
X
X
2P.S.
429
X
X
20
9
6
S
?
X
X
X
X
26
10
3.5
E
Flush
X
i
X
2 slabs missing
430
X
X
24
10
7.5
E
Flush
X
j
X
2P.S.
X
X
19
9
6
E
Flush
X
X
2P.S.
X
X
14
9.5
8
E
?
X
1
X
Slabs 2" thick
X
12
10
4
S
?
X
X
All slabs missing
433
X
X
17
9
8
E
Flush
X
X
X
X
15
9
?
E
?
^
X
All slabs missing
437
X
X
18
8
4.5
E
?
X
X
2 slabs missing ; 2 P. S.
439
X
X
17
12
6
E
?
X
X
2 slabs missing
X
X
16
6.5
5.5
E
?
X
X
154
X
Hexag.
9
9
5
?
?
X
157
X
Square
12
10
3.5
S
?
X
X
158
x(?)
X
14
7
3.5
s
?
X
X
161
X
X
20
9
5
7
?
?
X
X
Divided by cross slab
162
X
X
25
17
6.5
?
?
X
X
2 slabs missing
171
X
X
Circular
Circular
11 diam.
14 diam.
4
5
E
E
Slight
Slight
X
X
Clay-lined
Clay-lined
179
X
X
11.5
7.5
9
S
?
X
X
417
X
Square
8
7
4.5
s
?
X
1 slab missing
419
x(?)
X
13
10
5.5
E
Flush
X
X
422A
X
X
17
11
5.5
S
1 slab 2
X
X
X
X
16
13
6
E
Flush
X
X
422B
X
X
22
16
6.5
S
?
X
X
1 fireplace remantling of other
X
X
23
lb
7
S
?
X
X
1 side masonry
424
430
—
X
X
X
Square
20
I2'
12
10'
3
?
S
?
?
—
--
X
X
—
X
X
Remade by lengthening and
X
X
23
IR
8
S
?
X
X
partly filling; 1 side masonry
433
X
Square
22
20
15
7
Bed
Rock
7
X
X
1 P.S.
1 side masonry
434
435
--
X
X
X
Square
17
12
4
4
S
Slight
7
—
X
X
— -
— -
X
X
2 slabs missing
10
9
X
X
20
13
7
s
X
X
Early depth 7"; later 3.5"
X
X
13
8
5
E
Flush
X
X
1 slab missing
436
X
X
19
13
9
RpH
Flush
X
X
Abandoned and covered; 1 P. S.
X
X
19
12
7
Rock
Flush
X
X
Abandoned and covered
X
X
22
10
6
S
Flush
X
X
Abandoned and covered
437
"
X
18
8
4.5
E
7
X
X
2 slabs missing; 1 P.S.
Figure
Compilation of aU recorded data on «J1 fireplaces in House Group D, arranged according to their Recent or Ancient associ-
ations. Shape, dimensions in inches, position in the room, and orientation are indicated, as weU as any special features of signi-
ficance. The abbreviation "P.S." in the colmim headed "Remarks" indicates the presence of pot-stones. References to missing
slabs indicate the absence of one or more of the usual vertical side slabs, which probably were originally in place and have
subsequently been robbed.
Entries in the 9th column, headed "Hearth," indicate the nature of the bottom of the fireplaces: E signifies that it was
bare earth, S that it was paved with a stone slab.
Entries in the loth column, headed "Height," indicate the extent, if any, to which the side slabs or any of them extended
above the level of the floor. In most cases this was not recorded, or was expressed as being flush with the floor or "slightly"
above it.
An "X" indicates the presence of the character specified at the head of a column, a blank space indicates its absence. An
interrogation point signifies that the information was not recorded.
Recent Levels
Ancient Levels
o
O CD
1'
11
^1
1
2 I
? 4
5
6
7
1'
^ O
1
2 .
3 4
5
6
7
A
19
50-
25-
16
50
25
xi
K
/I
/
\
4n
r^
r
V
V
1
V
\/
t
\^
i
B
83
50-
25
63
50
25
/
\
/
\
.4n.
r~
4
V
T
ir
T
r~
7
\/
t
V
_,
c
26
50
25
20
50
25 ■
^--»
/
|\
/h
V
T
T
1
^
H
V
1
V
^
D
25
50-
25-
/
V
24
50
25
1
f\
/
\
1
\
r
J
V
T
T
^
r
J
\.
^r
.^
1
E
15
50-
25-
12
50
25
l\
^
A
l\
1
1
\
^^
V
\/
Y
1
^^
V
\
/
T
^
F
13
50 -
25 -
7
50
25
/I
Iv
A
K
/
\
^1
^
V
\.
-r
r
1
/
\
/
f
1
^
5
^
181
50 ■
25
142
50-
25
/
\
/
K
/
/
\
r
Y
V
^
T^
1
r-
V
vJ
T
:x
3_
Figure 5
Associations between benches, bins, and fireplaces in all house groups on all floors
having one or more of these features.
The graphs across Columns i to 7 indicate the relative frequencies in each group of
various combinations of these features, expressed in percentages of the total number of
floors in that group having one or more of them, as follows :
Column I — Benches only-
Column 2 — Bins only
Column 3 — Fireplaces only
Column 4 — Benches and bins only
Column 5 — Benches and fireplaces only
Column 6 — Bins and fireplaces only
Column 7 — Benches, bins, and fireplaces
'^7777.
yy///////y///.
^
c^
8
V///////////A
1
8
o
o a
n-. <1^
<u
I O
OJ Vh 4->
fl f^ n-(
r2 ^ a
(u o
rC O
'^ ^ CO
<D
O
Ph o
p^ 9
Oh g
Figure 7
Plan of the upper levels of rooms in House Group B.
ca
CD
CD
1
g
1
1
CO
? yT//////////////////,
oq
v////^/////.
CO
'-iCSCO c\)
Y//////////
rS 5^ 5
5^^
^ f^ t^ CO ^ Ciq C3
CJ, '-H Oq 00 ^^ lo <^
CO
^'///yy/////.
8
§
8
?
f
t-HCSlCO
^^
y////////y
»^CSJ
»-t<Mc»^ .^ CM cv^ ;o I CO >» iQ
v>/////////7777>
^eo
V//////////,
V/////////-
CO
fc.
i-iCv) CM "^ lt5
o.
cn-
5
V/////////77,
^
^o^
CM oo
I
8
V////////////f
I I
o tn
to
o
o
a
Ui
5.2
o o
« c
^<;
si
.t:J CO
O o
3 3
• in CO
i=! ^
o ""^
i:! -^
? o
bjo c^
^ .5
1 o
0) ct3
CO MH
o ^^
K ^
O c^
u P-i
CO CO
P ^->
O ^
H o
A
Occurrences of Recent
Glaze and Late Poly-
chrome with other Types
in Recent Levels
1
1
t
1
■
t
J
i
1
1
CO
1
c
Sequence of Ancient
Levels from Upper-
most downward
^1
r
ll
Recent Glaze without
Late Polychrome
10
2
12
5
29
Early Polychrome
{Particular Type
not recorded)
1
2
3
4
9
10
3
1
35
36
9
3
25.7
28.3
33.3
33.3
Late Polychrome
without Recent Glaze
12
1
4
--
17
Late Polychrome and
Recent Glaze equal
18
2
16
4
41
Polychrome L
1
2
3
4
3
8
2
35
36
9
3
8.6
22.2
22.2
Recent Glaze greater
than Late Polychrome
6
3
8
16
33
Late Polychrome greater
than Recent Glaze
2
3
6
4
16
Polychrome II
1
2
3
4
2
3
35
36
9
3
5.7
8.3
Late Polychrome and
Recent Glaze both absent
2
1
3
-
6
Total Number of
Recent Levels
142
Polychrome III
1
2
3
4
2
3
1
35
36
9
3
5.7
8.3
11.1
B
Late Types
found in
Ancient Levels
Uppermost
Ancient
Levels
Lower
Ancient
Levels
Ancient Glaze
{Particular Type
not recorded)
1
2
3
4
3
6
2
35
36
9
3
8.6
16.6
22.2
II
Y, Vi ^
2 S ^
o c? ^
c S e
li
1 ^
1*
Glaze I
1
2
3
4
4
9
2
3
35
36
9
3
11.4
25.5
22.2
100.0
Glaze II
1
2
3
4
5
13
4
2
35
36
9
3
14.3
36.0
44.4
66.6
Recent Glaze with
Late Polychrome
29
36.1
7
11.4
Recent Glaze only
3
3.8
1
1.6
Early Polychrome
Polychromes I, II,
& III {Combined)
1
2
3
4
12
19
6
1
35
36
9
3
34.3
52.8
66.6
33.3
Late Polychrome
only
26
32.4
12
20.0
Neither Rec't Glaz
nor Late Polych'mt
'22
27.7
41
67.0
Ancient Glaze
Glazes I & II
{Combined)
1
2
3
4
8
21
6
3
35
36
9
3
22.9
58.3
66.6
100.0
Totals
80
100.0
61
100.0
Figure 9
Tabulation of the frequencies of occurrences and associations of various pottery tj-pes at Recent and Ancient levels in House Group B.
Table A shows the number of occurrences in aU Recent levels of Recent Glaze and Late Polychrome in association with Sikyatki ceramic
types, Spanish artifacts, and with neither. Recent Glaze occurs more frequently and in greater quantity than does Late Polychrome, and the
absence of both is rare.
Table B shows the number and percentages of occurrences in all Ancient levels of Recent Glaze and Late Polychrome in association with
Early Polychromes and Ancient Glazes. In the uppermost Ancient levels (which in many cases were difficult to distinguish from Recent levels
directly above them) the frequencies of the later types were relatively high, but in the deeper Ancient levels they were much lower. Recent
Glaze without Late Polychrome was very rare in both upper and lower Ancient levels, and the complete absence of both later types was much
more frequent in the lower levels than in the upper.
Table C shows the frequencies and percentages of occurrences of Early Polychromes (Polychromes I, II, and III) and of Ancient Glazes
(Glazes I and II) in all Ancient levels according to their successive depth. The frequencies of all tjrpes increase from upper to lower levels, with
the single exception that the Early Polychromes appear only once in the lowest level, suggesting that the Ancient Glazes were chronologically
earlier in their beginnings than were the Early Polychromes.
Recent Levels
Ancient Levels \
1|
^3
^1
^1
is
CO
1
1
Si
|3
^1
4^
^
o
1
1
177
1
2
X
178
X
X
178
X
202
X
X
X
181
X
223
^
181
X
286
X
182
X
299
X
X
183
2
1
303 A
2
1
202
X
X
X
X
303 B
X
X
223
1
2
X
311
2
1
X
234
2
1
X
314
X
X
234
X
315
X
262
X
X
320
X
X
X
X
X
276
X
X
322
X
X
277
1
2
X
326
1
2
X
278
2
1
3
X
334
X
X
280
X
335
X
283
1
2
X
X
337
X
286
X
338
X
X
X
289
X
X
X
X
338
X
290
X
X
339
X
X
X
299
X
340
X
X
X
X
301
X
X
X
341
2
1
X
301
X
X
342
1
2
X
303 A
X
X
342
X
X
303 B
X
X
344 A
X
X
304
X
X
X
344 B
X
X
X
X
X
X
304
X
X
347
X
311
X
349
X
X
313
X
X
349
X
314
X
X
X
350
X
X
315
X
350
X
316
1
2
353
X
X
X
317
354
X
X
318
1
2
X
X
356
X
X
X
320
X
X
X
357
321
X
X
X
X
359
1
2
X
Figure io
Occurrences of all ceramic types and Spanish artifacts in Recent and Ancient levels
of House Group B. An "x" indicates a field record of occurrence without indication of
abundance; but where relative quantities were recorded in the field notes the numerals
1,2, and 3 are employed here to indicate the quantitative sequence.
Only 70 Recent and 70 Ancient levels are included in this table from a total number
of 278 levels in the entire excavation of House Group B, but these suffice as an adequate
sample of the whole. The results of a study of the entire number are cumulative only, and
agree essentially with the evidence presented by this sample, which is also representative
of the ceramic situation in all other house groups.
Recent Levels \
Ancient Levels \
^1
1^
c3
1
o
J'
^1
is
^
S
1
1
s
e
^
322
323
324
325
326
1
X
1
2
X
2
X
2
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
360
362
363
363
364
X
X
X
X
1
X
3
X
2
X
328
329
330
333
334
X
1
X
2
2
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
366
366
367
368
369
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
335
337
338
339
340
X
X
2
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
370
370
371
372
373
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
341
342
343
343
344 A
X
2
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
y
375
376
377
377
378
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
X
X
X
X
X
344 B
345
346
346
346
X
1
1
2
2
2
1
X
X
X
X
X
378
379
380
381
381
X
2
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
347
348
349
350
351
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
383
383
383
383
384
X
X
1
X
2
2
3
1
X
X
352
353
355
356
357
2
X
X
2
1
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
384
385
385
386
387
X
1
X
X
2
2
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
Recent Glaze or Late Polychrome, or more often both, occur in all but 3 Recent
levels, with Recent Glaze somewhat the more common of the two. Both are considerably-
less frequent in Ancient levels, where Recent Glaze is rarely dominant. Ancient Glazes
and Early Polychromes occur only 3 times in Recent levels, but are frequent in Ancient
levels. Black-on-white and Gila types are rare throughout but occur more frequently in
Ancient levels. Sikyatki types and Spanish artifacts occur fairly freely throughout but
are approximately twice as frequent in Recent levels as in Ancient.
Repetitions of a room number indicate the existence in that room of more than i
level, the sequence from top to bottom being the same as in the table.
§
ei
e;
n
D
[^
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l{OUdQ
TUT
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to
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Scale in Feet
Figure 14
Plan of the upper levels of rooms in House Group D.
431
Sp ■ Spanish Artifacts
1 - Recent Glaze
2 -Late Polychrome
3-Sikyatki
4- Ancient Glaze
5 -Early Polychrome
6- Gila Ware
F- Fireplace
H- Hexagonal F. P.
B- Bench
X- Bin
Recent Masonry
Ancient Masonry
438
50
45—
40—
35—
-HI
Sp
Unexcavaied ^
162
Bed Rock
10
20
Scale in Feet
Vertical and Horizontal
436
Profile 5-6
Bed Rock
Figure 15
Three profiles through House Group D (1-2, 3-4, and 5-6, as shown in Figure 14),
indicating vertical positions of floors, presence or absence of floor features, Spanish
artifacts, and native pottery types in each level, as well as transitions from Ancient
to Recent masonry.
55 —
50-
45 —
40-
35-
429B
Profile 7-8
154B
Bed Rock
— 55
— 50
45
40
— 35
Sp- Spanish Artifacts
1 - Recent Glaze
2 -Late Polychrome
3-Sikyatki
4- Ancient Glaze
5 -Early Polychrome
6- Gila Ware
F- Fireplace
H- Hexagonal F. P.
C - Circular F. P.
B- Bench
X- Bin
Recent Masonry
^ Ancient Masonry
437
Sp
179
Unexcavated
170
Profile
9-10
-55
144
-50
X . 1
2
150
F ^^
— 45
Unexcavated
1 -40
0
t I I
10
20
Scale in Feet
Vertical and Horizontal
50-
45 —
40 —
35-
151
197
Unexcavated M Unexca-
vated fi.
Figure i6
Three profiles through House Group D (7-8, 9-10, and 11-12, as shown in Figure 14),
indicating vertical positions of floors, presence or absence of floor features, Spanish
artifacts, and native pottery types in each level, as well as transitions from Ancient
to Recent masonry.
B
o
o
>
in
;-i
(D
Oh
Oh
5j is !>. O
■ h S 5 ^
fc, cq OD ttH
Qiio
— 45
125
Unexca-
vatcd
F- Fireplace
C- Circular F. P.
B- Bench
X-Bin
Sp - Spanish Artifacts
1 - Recent Glaze
2 -Late Polychrome
3-Sikyatki
4- Ancient Glaze
5 -Early Polychrome
6- Gila Ware
Recent Masonry
Ancient Masonry
40
35
30
25
20
Profile 1-2
50 — North Part
45
40 —
35 —
30 —
160
^-n
166
189
124A
190B 190A
190 —50
1 s^r~
-J^nf
Unexcavated
10
20
Scale in Feet
Vertical and Horizontal
187
Profile 3
50
— 45
40
— 35
— 30
Figure i8
Two profiles through House Group E (1-2, 3-4, as shown in Figure 17), indicating
vertical positions of floors, presence or absence of floor features, Spanish artifacts, and
native pottery types in each level, as well as transitions from Ancient to Recent masonry.
n Fireplace
S Bench
Hfl^ Storage bin
O Floor slabs
M- Mealing bin
< ^ .^
^vw y[^
1
f f
vW-
-iVIAw, vu^Ww ^|A^- v>|^i—
Figure 19
Plan of the upper levels of rooms in House Group F.
I
D
I
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in
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fe^.
^
i^ n
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o^
^
a u
4J
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h °
Xi
c3
0)
O
o
bC
a
o
CO
'd
a
^ 2
O 03
ti -ii
(In Ci.
Figure 21
Reconstruction of the probable appearance of the fa9ade of the Church,
showing the balcony and a single bell tower. (Sketch by Watson Smith; adapted
from a reconstruction by Ross G. Montgomery).
Plan
■D
Sill
on
Elevation
B
Sill
Floor
2 Feet
Figure 22
Plan and profile of door, sill, and frame between Nave and Baptistry, showing
method of construction.
Surface
^'4i4
Floor of Nave f
Figure 23
Plan and side elevation of Sanctuary in the Church, Room 41, showing steps and
bases of earlier and later altars. View looks southeast.
Surface
Wall
of Apse
Steps
Floor of Nave
----■s
Wall
of Apse
3 Feet
Figure 24
Front elevation of the Sanctuary in the Church, showing steps, side walls of the
apse, and face of the main altar.
J
Figure 25
Plan and profile of Baptistery, Room 31, showing doorv\^ay from Nave,
base of baptismal font, and recessed floor. Profile looks northeast.
—
—
—
!.j
3 Feet
F'iGURE 26
Plan and profile of Conventual Chapel, Room 25, showing doorway from Sacristy, adobe
paving on the floor, and elevated platform for altar and reredos. Profile looks northwest.
Surface
Red
Umber W(^^^
Petals rrri White
Floor
Ground Color not
Recorded
Scale not Recorded
Figure 27
Sketch of surviving fragment of dado on wall of Nave, painted to simulate azulejos,
or ceramic tiles. Mural decoration of this kind was probably extensively used in many
parts of the original Franciscan structure.
Ambulatory
3 Feet
Surface
a
Floor
Figure 28
Plan and profile of the Kitchen, Room 13, showing doorway from ambulatory, firepit,
benches, and storage bin. The profile looks northwest.
Fireplace
Surface
Floor
Floor
Steps
Fire-.
n place
Floor
3 Feet
r
Figure 29
Profile of Room i, viewed from the northeast, showing the stairs, the secondary-
partition wall, and the 2 later floors and fireplaces.
Surface
Figure 30
Profile of Room 29, viewed from the southeast, showing the position of the stairs.
A'
Surface
Floor
Filled with
Refuse
'//////////////////////////////////////////A
Original Floor
^
Figure 31
Plan and profile of Koom 9, showing original fireplaces in corners, and secondary wall
and bench with fireplaces upon it. The profile looks northeast.
3 Feet
Surface
Floor
Floor
Floor
Fire-
place
Fire-
. place
^^^^^^^^^^
^
Figure 32
Profile of Room 2, viewed from the southeast and just inside the southeast wall,
showing the original floor, the secondary partition wall, and the 2 later floors and fireplaces.
Figure 33
Reconstruction of the possible appearance of the altar and reredos in the Conventual
Chapel, Room 25.
y/9*^s
^^^^^-jT/^^^e or y^</^^6^
/Syee/ 1
y Tsr
|i>^?^^^>fe;^^^
Figure 34
Vertical section of altar and reredos in the Conventual Chapel, Room 25, showing
their probable arrangement. The view is to the northwest.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Sfo/^e. or ac^oSe,
IVooc/--^
Figure 35
Plan of the rear or southwestern portion of the Conventual Chapel, Room 25, showing
the probable arrangement of the altar and reredos assembly. The 5 foot depth of the
Final Predella is minimum: the friars certainly would have preferred an increase of
6 inches. However, they had to conserve as much of the available space as possible with
respect to the balance of the restricted room, for aisle and seating purposes; a small
organ also required space.
LEVELS
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
10 7o
HODGE'S TERMINOLOGY
GLAZE IZ
LATE
POLYCHROME
EARLY
POLYCHROME
GLAZE m
GLAZE n
GLAZE I
GILA WARE
CORRUGATED
PRESENT-DAY TERMINOLOGY
I I
II
1 1 1 1
■ I
•II
'I
BLACK-ON-RED AND
BLACK-ON- I I I
WHITE
SIKYATKI
I I I
HAWIKUH
POLYCHROME AND
BLACK-ON-RED
MATSAKI
POLYCHROME
KECHIPAWAN
POLYCHROME
PINNAWA
GLAZE-ON-WHITE
I I I I KWAKINA
POLYCHROME
HESHOTAUTHLA
POLYCHROME
GILA
POLYCHROME
CORRUGATED
BLACK-ON-RED AND
BLACK-ON-
WHITE
JEDDITO
YELLOW WARES
Figure 36
Bar graph of percentages of pottery types in the Plaza Trench, redrawn from
Hodge's line graph. He omitted Level i, surface material, and Level 15, the
sherds on bed rock. Each level was one foot thick.
/. .2
c c
0 0
\\
I I
II «
« I
• ' M • ,
Figure 37
Location of cremations and inhumations at Hawikuh, based on the original field maps.
e
Figure 37
and inhumations at Hawikuh, based on the original field maps.
Figure 38
"Scalp deposit" overlying Burial 113 (redrawn from sketch in field notes).
a
Figure 39
Heshotauthla Polychrome, bowl interiors.
ii^s ^^ ra 1^
g
%%%%%
Figure 40
Heshotauthla Polychrome: a-h, k, m, bowl exterior designs; /, n-q, bowl interiors.
Unnamed white-on-red: i, j, bowl exterior designs.
flu
IIP
^m
I ^^A III ^^
!i^
te
^
li
i^^^li ^^s
Figure 41
Kwakina Polychrome bowls: a-e, interiors. Unnamed white-on-red bowls:
/, h, interiors; g, i-k, exteriors.
^0^1^
W^'WWl
mm
g
Figure 42
Kwakina Polychrome : a-d, bowl exterior designs {a, c, and d represent white on red :
b, black and white on red) ; e-m, bowl interiors.
\ i 'z^.^.^.
m
"^^^/p^^
Figure 43
Pinnawa Glaze-on-white: a-h, bowl interiors; i, ladle interior ; y-f, bowl exteriors.
Figure 44
Pinnawa Red-on-white: a-c, jars; d-e, bowl interiors; f-i, bowl exteriors. Unnamed
red-on-buff: j, k, interior and exterior of same bowl; /, jar.
a
Figure 45
Gila Polychrome jars.
^^Sl^
f
Figure 46
Gila Polychrome: a-d, h, jars; f,j, I, bowl interiors and exteriors; e, k, bowl interiors;
g, i, bowl interiors.
mjkm ^E
Figure 47
Kechipawan Polychrome: bowls and a jar (/).
Figure 48
Kechipawan Polychrome bowls.
g
Figure 49
Kechipawan Polychrome jars.
Figure 50
Kechipawan Polychrome: a-c, jars; d-j, bowls; h, I, variants with a buff slip, shown
by stippling (a bowl and a jar).
g
Figure 51
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape i,
Figure 52
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape i.
Figure 53
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape i.
Figure 54
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape i.
Figure 55
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
g
Figure 56
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
Figure 57
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
Figure 58
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
Figure 59
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
d
g^t^B
Figure 6o
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
Figure 6i
Matsaki Polychrome bowls of Shape 2.
^^m^^^^^^^^%
X X X X
Figure 62
Matsaki Polychrome bowls: a-e, Shape 2; /-/, Shape 3.
Figure 63
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape i.
Figure 64
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape i.
Figure 65
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape i.
Figure 66
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape 2.
Figure 67
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape 2.
g
Figure 68
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape 2.
Figure 69
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape 2.
Figure 70
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape 3.
Figure 71
Matsaki Polychrome jars of Shape 3.
Figure 72
Matsaki Polychrome: a, h, ladles; c, d, cups; e, orange on cream-white bowl, probably
Matsaki Polychrome ; /, variant with glaze paint resembling Hawikuh Polychrome ; g-m
(jars) and n, 0 (bowls), variants resembling Pinnawa Glaze-on-white and Kechipawan
Polychrome in shape, slip, design, and/or workmanship.
Figure 73
Matsaki Brown-on-buff: bowls, and a jar (/)
Figure 74
Hawikuh Polychrome bowls.
Figure 75
Hawikuh Polychrome bowls.
Figure 76
Hawikuh Polychrome bowls.
Figure 77
Hawikuh Polychrome bowls.
MiFkiglMli
g
ipwaw^mii
ingaii/njF i-^. &»g ^
m n
^IK^IEE^IE^
^mmmt...^^^^
H
^c
^
Figure 78
Hawikuh Polychrome bowl exteriors.
Figure 79
Hawikuh Polychrome jars.
Figure 8o
Jeddito Black-on-yellow: a, h, ladles; c, bowl; d, f, h, unidentified vessels; e, chipped
disk made from base of vessel probably of Mexican origin, of buff with red, yellow, and
black decoration; g, i-l, Sikyatki Polychrome.
PLATES
ERRATA
PL i,d: "House Block E in 1919" should read 'Triary.
PI. II, a: "Room 288" should read "Room 288."
Fig. 22: "baptistry" should read "baptistery."
Plate i
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1=1 O P ^
o
S^ Si::;
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<-M O <-M
p b£) ;3
^ S ^
% r^ %
ffi J ffi w
« rO <0 "^
Plate 2
n— I i-H
1^ i5 i=l
^ N
bo "2
E o
>^ bjo ^
J;^ a (D
CO 0)
(D 0
H H O §
Q rO <J '^
Plate 3
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Plate 4
i-
M
Plate
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WmF'MjWw^it ml Mk' ^
Bi
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Plate 7
k^^:
J?^'
^^ ""'^^^.
■^^^Kssgja^
^Mh8^^^^
=- )t
-^^.. .
a. Room 180 in House Group F, upper level, showing doorway sealed with slab,
having jambs, sill, and lintel of slabs.
b. Room 232 in House Group F, upper level, showing wall opening, with step.
c. Room 244 in House Group C, middle and lower levels, showing two doorways,
open, the other sealed with masonry. The masonry is Ancient.
d. Room 302 in House Group C, middle level, showing doorway reduced in area,
later fully sealed, with jambs, sill, and lintel of slabs. The masonry is Recent.
and
and
Pi, All: S
a. Room 194 in House Group F, upper level, showing elongated fireplace and multiple bins.
b. Room 329 in House Group B, upper level, showing fireplace, bin, doorway, and long
vertical slab in floor.
c. Room 223 in House Group B, lower level, showing long, narrow, slab-covered bench, with
large bin near center. The slab is pierced by a small circular hole, 3 inches in diameter,
and covers a cist containing ceramic animal figurines. Human, deer, and other animal
bones are scattered on the floor. The masonry is Recent above, Ancient below.
d. Room 180 in House Group F, upper level, showing narrow fireplace, long storage bin,
and bench supporting a row of bowls and jars, which contained cornmeal, corncobs,
and beans. The vertical structure is a slab 5 inches thick, plaster-coated.
Plate 9
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Plate io
a. Room 117 in House Group C, Upper Level, showing walls of j/"aca/ construction, with
Recent masonry behind.
b. Room 244 in House Group C, middle level, showing plaster coating over Ancient masonry.
Plate ii
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a. Room 414 in House Group B, fifth level, showing granaries after removal of beams
supporting fourth floor. {See Plate 14, a, for photograph of these beams in situ).
h. Room 429 in House Group D, showing beams of upper floor in situ, with fireplace upon
them.
c. Room 324 in House Group B, lower level, showing granary in southeast corner, and
Ancient masonry.
d. Room 248 in House Group F, upper level, showing three fireplaces.
Plate i6
a. Room 314 in House Group B, first level showing bench, fireplace, and
paved floor. Was this room a Kiva ?
b. Room 314 in House Group B, third level, showing three fireplaces and
vertical wall slabs.
c. Room 339 in House Group B, lowest level, showing fireplace, paved floor,
and partly sealed doorway with window through it. Possible loom holes
appear in floor. The masonry is Ancient but poor.
Plate 17
a. The Sanctuary of the Mission Church, showing the second altar, the steps and fallen
newell posts, and the two side altars.
h. The original altar on its predella, after the removal of the facade of the second altar.
Plate i8
a. General view from the North of the Church and Friary, with House Group F in the
middle ground.
h. View of the Friary, looking eastward across the garth, from the Chapel, Room 25.
Plate 19
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Plate 21
Pinnawa Red-on- white {a, b), an unnamed red-on-buff type {c-e), Kechipawan Polychrome
(/), and an unnamed white-on-red type (g-j).
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Kechipawan Polychrome.
Plate 23
Matsaki Polychrome jars.
i'LATi: 24
Matsaki Polychrome bowls.
Plate 25
Hawikuh Polychrome.
Plate 26
Hawikuh Polychrome.
Plate 27
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a. Burial 1247, a secondary burial found by chance in front of Hodge's tent.
b. Burial 665, with one of the Zufii workmen.
c. Church Burial 2, a child (apparently only partly excavated).
d. Burial 63, detail of basketry and corn.
Plate 32
a. Burial 151, flexed on side, with a Heshotauthla Polychrome bowl now in the collection
of the Amerind Foundation, Dragoon, Arizona.
h. Burial 1314, beneath fireplace of Room 422 B, an infant, disturbed, with a smudged
interior red ware bowl.
c. Burial 879, a secondary burial.
d. Burial 232, a headless burial, with six Matsaki Polychrome vessels.
Plate 33
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Plate 34
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
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